International Law and Outer Space Activities

I Introduction, Purpose and Scope.- I Outer Space Treaty.- II Space Law Before the Space Treaty.- 1. Resolutions and Studies on Outer Space Preceding the Acceptance of the Space Treaty.- A. United Nations Resolutions and Declarations on Outer Space.- B. Legal Effect of United Nations Resolutions and Declarations.- C. Studies on Outer Space Preceding the Space Treaty.- 1. Institut de Droit International.- 2. The David Davies Memorial Institute of International Studies.- 3. The International Law Association.- 2. General International Law and the United Nations Charter.- 3. Freedom of Passage of Satellites.- 4. Interpretation of the term “Peaceful Uses”.- 5. Rules relating to Frequency Allocations.- 6. The Test Ban Treaty.- 7. Agreements about Commercial Satellite Communications.- A. Introduction.- B. Definitive intelsat.- 1. Preparatory work leading to the Definitive intelsat.- 2. Analysis of the Definitive intelsat arrangements.- a. Aims (37); b. Membership (38); c. Scope of activities (39); d. Legal personality (42); e. Structure of definitive intelsat (42), (i) Assembly of Parties (42), (ii) Meeting of Signatories (43), (iii) Board of Governors (44), (iv) Executive Organ (45), (a) Transitional Arrangements (45), (b) Director General (46); F. Settlement of Disputes (46).- C. Intersputnik.- D. intelsat and intersputnik Compared.- 8. Other Agreements.- III Definition of Outer Space.- 1. Evolution of the problem of definition of outer space in the United Nations.- 2. Interpretation of “outer space”, “celestial bodies” and “outer space object” as used in the Space Treaty.- IV Outer Space is the Province of Mankind.- 1. For the benefit of all countries.- 2. Freedom of “exploration” and “utilization” of outer space.- A. Principles of law enunciated by the Space Treaty.- B. Proposals regarding the legal regulation of the uses of the Moon.- 3. Irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development.- 4. “Province of mankind”.- 5. “Free access to all areas of celestial bodies”.- 6. Freedom of scientific investigation.- V Jurisdiction over Outer Space.- 1. Principle of non-appropriation.- 2. Ownership rights.- 3. Nationality of spacecraft.- 4. Registration.- VI Arms Control and the Space Treaty.- 1. Introduction.- 2. “No Bomb in Orbit” provision.- 3. Effect of Space Treaty on Construction of the mol and the fobs.- 4. Proposal of Italy for the amendment of Article iv of the Space Treaty.- 5. Concluding appraisal of Article iv of the Space Treaty.- 6. Outer Space Treaty and Treaty of Arms Control of the Sea-Bed compared.- VII Verification Provision.- 1. Introduction.- 2. “On a basis of reciprocity”.- 3. “Reasonable advance notice”, and “Appropriate consultation”.- VIII Treaty Provisions on Safety, Tracking Facilities and Exchange of Information.- 1. Provisions bearing on safety.- 2. Tracking Facilities.- 3. Exchange of Information.- IX Final Clauses.- 1. Signature, Ratification, etc..- 2. Amendment.- 3. Withdrawal.- 4. Authenticity of Language Texts.- 5. Procedure for settlement of disputes.- II Assistance and Return Agreement.- X Assistance and Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space.- 1. General principles enunciated by the Space Treaty.- 2. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the return of Astronauts and the return of Objects launched into outer space.- A. Introduction.- B. Analysis of Agreement.- (i) Articles 1–4: Provisions relating to Notification, Search and Rescue, Assistance and Return of the Personnel of a spacecraft.- (ii) Article 5: Recovery and Return of Space Objects.- (iii) Article 6: Definition of “Launching Authority”.- (iv) Article 7 (1) — the “All States” clause.- (v) Article 7 (3) — entry into force.- (vi) Other clauses.- III Liability for Damages and the Responsibility of States and International Organizations.- XI Liability for Damages and Responsibility of States and International Organizations.- 1. Principles enunciated by the Space Treaty.- a. Liability for damages.- b. Responsibility of States and International Organizations.- 2. Draft Convention on International liability for damage caused by space objects (Title, Preamble and Thirteen Articles, as approved by the Legal Sub-Committee at its Ninth Session, 1970).- a. Introduction.- b. General contents of the draft Convention.- (i) Scope of liability.- (ii) Basis of liability.- (iii) The person liable.- (iv) Joint and several liability.- (v) Presentation of claims.- (vi) Time-limit for presentation of claims.- (vii) Form of compensation.- (viii) Pursuit of remedies available in the respondent State or under other international agreements.- (ix) Procedure for presentation of claims.- (x) Note on reservations.- c. Positions of some delegations on the twin outstanding issues — applicable law and settlement of claims.- (1) The Ninth Session (June/July 1970) of the Legal Sub-Committee.- (2) The 13th Session (September 1970) of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.- 3. Convention on International Liability for Damage caused by Space Objects (Final text approved by the Legal Sub-Committee at its 166th Meeting on 29 June 1971).- 1. Introduction.- 2. Comparative analysis of the Draft Convention on International Liability as finally approved on 29 June 1971 by the Legal Sub-Committee and the texts previously approved at its ninth session.- A. Articles i–viii.- B. Article viii.- C. Articles ix, x, xi, xiii.- D. The twin outstanding issues — Applicable law (Article xii), Settlement of Claims (Articles xiv—xx).- a. Applicable law.- b. Settlement of claims.- (i) Establishment of the Claims Commission.- (ii) Composition and procedure of the Claims Commission.- (iii) Functions of the Claims Commission.- (iv) Decisions and awards.- (v) Expenses of the Claims Commission.- c. Views and reservations expressed by delegations on the provisions relating to applicable law and settlement of claims.- d. Canadian amendment.- e. Short note on reservations to Multilateral treaties.- E. Article xxi.- F. Application of the Convention to International Intergovernmental Organizations (Art. xxii).- G. Miscellaneous.- 4. Action of the General Assembly on 29 November 1971.- XII Examples of the “Utilization” of Outer Space (Space Applications).- A. Direct Broadcasting Satellites.- B. Earth Resources Survey Satellites.- C. The United Nations and Space Applications in general.- i. The uses to which satellites are being put and the benefits arising therefrom.- ii. United Nations Activities in General.- 1. The role of the Outer Space Affairs Division.- 2. United Nations Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.- 3. Proposals of India.- 4. Appointment of an Expert on Space Applications (Outer Space Affairs Division).- iii. United Nations Specialized Agencies.- 1. WMO.- 2. ITU.- 3. UNESCO.- XIII Trends in International Co-operation.- XIV Concluding Remarks.- Appendices.- A. Treaty Governing the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.- B. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space.- D. Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space.- G. Convention on Registration of objects launched into outer space.- H. Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water. Signed in Moscow, on 5 August 1963.- I. Draft Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (Title, Preamble and Thirteen Articles, as approved by the Legal Sub-Committee at its Ninth Session. 1970).- J. Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil thereof.- K. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, including the final text of the Convention on International Liability for Damage caused by space objects.- Selected Bibliography.