Cell death in biology and pathology

1 Cell death: a new classification separating apoptosis from necrosis.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Necrosis.- 1.2.1 Incidence.- 1.2.2 Morphology.- 1.2.3 Mechanism.- 1.3 Apoptosis.- 1.3.1 Incidence.- 1.3.2 Morphology.- 1.3.3 Mechanism.- 1.4 Validity of the classification.- 1.4.1 Relevance.- 1.4.2 Scope.- 1.4.3 Practicability.- 1.5 Summary and conclusions.- References.- 2 Cell death in embryogenesis.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Limb development and cell death.- 2.2.1 The areas of cell death.- 2.2.2 The role of cell death.- 2.2.3 Phylogenetic aspects.- 2.2.4 The programming of cell death.- 2.2.5 Genetic control of cell death in the limb bud.- 2.2.6 Teratogenic modification of cell death patterns in limb morphogenesis.- 2.3 Development of the nervous system.- 2.3.1 Neural tube closure.- 2.3.2 The role of the periphery in limb innervation.- 2.4 Differentiation of the reproductive system.- 2.5 Epithelial cell death during fusion of the secondary palate in mammalian development.- 2.6 Lysosomes and the control of embryonic cell death at the cellular level.- References.- 3 Cell death in metamorphosis Richard.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Amphibian metamorphosis.- 3.2.1 Anuran tail fins.- 3.2.2 Anuran tail muscle.- 3.2.3 Other tail tissues.- 3.2.4 Anuran tissues other than tail.- 3.2.5 Cell death in amphibian metamorphosis: summary.- 3.3 Metamorphosis in invertebrates.- 3.3.1 General comments.- 3.3.2 Insect muscle.- 3.3.3 Other invertebrate tissues.- 3.4 A model of cell death in metamorphosis.- 3.5 Cell death in metamorphosis: the future.- References.- 4 Tissue homeostasis and cell death.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Growth patterns.- 4.3 Organ growth control.- 4.3.1 Cell number and turnover.- 4.3.2 Control of cell loss and cell death.- 4.4 Model systems — the thymus.- 4.4.1 Autonomy of the thymus.- 4.4.2 Cell death and cell loss in the thymus.- 4.5 Homeostasis in malignant tissue.- 4.5.1 Tumour necrosis.- 4.5.2 Immunological cytolysis and differentiation.- 4.5.3 Autoregulation in tumours.- 4.5.4 Microenvironment of tumours.- 4.5.5 Cancer chemotherapy 138 References.- 5 Cell senescence and death in plants.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.1.1 Terminology.- 5.1.2 Mechanisms leading to cell death.- 5.1.3 Cell senescence and possible mechanisms.- 5.1.4 Cell senescence and death.- 5.2 Examination of senescent and dying cells.- 5.2.1 Vital dye studies.- 5.2.2 Ultrastructural studies.- 5.3 Biochemical and cytochemical consideration.- 5.4 Possibile interpretations of the biochemical, cytochemical and ultrastructural studies.- 5.4.1 Respiratory control.- 5.4.2 Dispersal of hydrolases.- 5.5 Mechanisms of cell senescence and death revisited.- 5.5.1 The somatic mutation theory.- 5.5.2 Error catastrophe theory.- 5.5.3 Pathological and mechanical damage.- 5.5.4 The timing and markers of the onset of cell death 162 References.- 6 The tissue kinetics of cell loss.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 The cell cycle.- 6.3 The organization of cell populations.- 6.4 The measurement of the kinetics of cell loss.- 6.4.1 Theoretical aspects of the kinetics of cell loss.- 6.4.2 Age-dependent death process.- 6.4.3 Methods for the estimation of loss parameters.- 6.4.4 The assessment of age-dependent loss in tumour cell populations.- 6.4.5 Pitfalls in the assessment of cell loss from growth curves.- 6.4.6 Estimation of cell loss rates from measurements of the turnover of labelled thymidine or thymidine analogues.- 6.4.7 The assessment of clonogenic cell loss.- 6.5 Some examples involving the measurement of cell loss kinetics in normal tissues.- 6.5.1 Differentiation-induced cell loss.- 6.5.2 Cell loss parameters in the adrenal cortex.- 6.5.3 Cell loss in the human epidermis.- 6.5.4 Cell death in the intestinal mucosa.- 6.5.5 Cell death in the prostrate complex.- 6.5.6 The kinetics of cell death in lymphoid tissue.- 6.5.7 Assessment of cell loss in vitro.- 6.6 The kinetics of cell loss in tumours.- 6.6.1 Cell loss in experimental tumours.- 6.6.2 Loss of clonogenic cells in tumours.- 6.7 Tissue responses.- 6.8 Conclusions.- References.- 7 Cell death and the disease process. The role of calcium.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Stages of cell injury 209 7.2.1 Comments on the stages.- 7.3 Mechanisms of progression.- 7.4 The role of ion shifts in cell injury.- 7.5 Calcium and cell injury.- 7.5.1 Mechanisms.- 7.5.2 Phospholipases.- 7.5.3 Cell shape modifications.- 7.6 Hypothesis.- 7.7 Summary 234 References.- 8 Cell death in vitro.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Cell aging and death in vitro.- 8.3 Donor age versus cell doubling potential.- 8.4 Species lifespan versus cell doubling potential.- 8.5 The finite lifetime of normal cells transplanted in vivo.- 8.6 Population doublings in vivo.- 8.7 Organ clocks.- 8.8 Clonal variation.- 8.9 Irradiation, DNA repair and effects of visible light.- 8.10 Cytogenetic studies.- 8.11 Error accumulation.- 8.12 The proliferating pool.- 8.13 Efforts to increase population doubling potential.- 8.14 Phase III in cultured mouse fibroblasts.- 8.15 Phase III theories.- 8.16 Can cell death be normal?.- 8.17 Dividing, slowly dividing and non-dividing cells.- 8.18 Aging or differentiation?.- 8.19 Functional and biochemical changes that occur in cultured normal human cells.- 8.20 Immortal cells.- References.- 9 Nucleic acids in cell death.- 9.1 The basic problem.- 9.2 Protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells.- 9.3 Nucleic acids in silk glands.- 9.4 Limitations of present data.- 9.5 Future developments 290 References.- 10 Mechanism(s) of action of nerve growth factor in intact and lethally injured sympathetic nerve cell in neonatal rodents.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Historical survey.- 10.3 The salivary NGF: morphological and biochemical effects induced in its target cells.- 10.3.1 The 2.5S and 7S NGFs.- 10.3.2 Morphological effects of NGF.- 10.3.3 Metabolic effects of NGF.- 10.3.4 Effects of NGF on catecholamine synthesis.- 10.3.5 Interaction of NGF and contractile fibrillar proteins.- 10.4 Dual access and mechanisms of action of NGF in its target cells.- 10.5 Destruction of immature sympathetic nerve cells by immunochemical, pharmacological and surgical procedures.- 10.5.1 Immunosympathectomy.- 10.5.2 Chemical sympathectomy.- 10.6 Surgical axotomy.- 10.7 Protective effects of NGF against 6-OHDA, guanethidine, vinblastine, AS-NGF and surgical axotomy.- 10.7.1 NGF and 6-OHDA.- 10.7.2 NGF and guanethidine.- 10.7.3 NGF and vinblastine.- 10.7.4 NGF and AS-NGF.- 10.7.5 NGF and surgical axotomy.- 10.8 Some considerations and concluding remarks.- References.- 11 Glucocorticoid-induced lymphocyte death.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Glucocorticoid receptors and metabolic effects in lymphocytes.- 11.2.1 Rat thymus cells.- 11.2.2 Normal and leukaemic human lymphocytes.- 11.3.3 Lymphoid cell lines.- 11.3 Lethal effects of glucocorticoids on lymphocytes.- 11.3.1 Morphological changes.- 11.3.2 Species variation in sensitivity to killing by glucocorticoids.- 11.3.3 Variation in sensitivity among subpopulations of lymphocytes.- 11.3.4 Effects on malignant lymphocytes.- 11.4 Genetic analysis of glucocorticoid-induced cell death.- 11.4.1 Models for studying the lethal actions of glucocorticoids.- 11.4.2 Glucocorticoid receptors in mutants and other cells resistant to glucocorticoid-induced cell death.- 11.5 Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced cell death.- 11.5.1 Relations among early glucocorticoid effects and cell death.- 11.5.2 Indirect effects of glucocorticoids on lymphocytes.- 11.6 Conclusions.- References.- 12 The role of the LT system in cell destruction in vitro.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Molecular characteristics of the LT systems of cytotoxic effector molecules.- 12.3 Cellular processes involved in LT release by unstimulated (primary) and stimulated (secondary) human lymphocytes.- 12.4 Types of lytic reactions induced by lytic molecules of various weights in vitro.- 12.5 Conclusions.- References.- 13 Techniques for demonstrating cell death.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.1.1 Programmed cell death.- 13.1.2 Acute cell death.- 13.2 Microscopical.- 13.2.1 Histological.- 13.2.2 Fine-structural.- 13.3 Cytochemical and biochemical.- 13.3.1 Markers of phagocytosis.- 13.3.2 Markers of hydrolysis.- 13.3.4 Other enzymes.- 13.3.5 DNA.- 13.3.6 RNA and synthetic changes.- 13.3.7 Methods related to immune killing.- 13.3.8 Accumulated products 426 13.4 Conclusions.- References.- Author index.