Arctic and Alpine Biodiversity: Patterns, Causes and Ecosystem Consequences

I: Patterns and Causes of Diversity.- 1 Patterns and Causes of Arctic Plant Community Diversity.- 1.1 Background and Definitions.- 1.2 Arctic Species Diversity: The First Filter.- 1.3 Biogeographical Patterns Within the Arctic: The Second Set of Filters.- 1.4 Distribution of Species in Communities: The Third Set of Filters.- 1.5 Global Change and Community Dynamics.- 1.6 Conclusions.- References.- 2 Causes of Arctic Plant Diversity: Origin and Evolution.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Historical Factors of Arctic Plant Diversity.- 2.3 Evolution of Diversity.- 2.4 Breeding Mechanisms.- 2.5 Polyploidy.- 2.6 Ecotypes.- 2.7 Conclusions.- References.- 3 Patterns and Causes of Genetic Diversity in Arctic Plants.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Present Patterns of Genetic Diversity.- 3.3 Causes of Present Genetic Diversity Patterns.- 3.4 Genetic Response to Future Climate Change.- 3.5 Conclusions.- References.- 4 Alpine Plant Diversity: A Global Survey and Functional Interpretations.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 How Much Land Is Covered by Alpine Ecosystems?.- 4.3 Plant Species Diversity in the Alpine Life Zone.- 4.4 Plant Functional Groups in Alpine Ecosystems.- 4.5 Causes of Alpine Plant Diversity.- 4.6 Effects of Biodiversity on Alpine Ecosystem Functioning.- 4.7 Alpine Biodiversity and Climate Change.- 4.8 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Origin and Evolution of the Mountain Flora in Middle Asia and Neighbouring Mountain Regions.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Number of Species in the Mountains.- 5.3 Effective Factors for Evolution.- 5.4 Models for Mountain Florogenesis.- 5.5 The History of Vegetation.- 5.6 Conclusions.- References.- 6 Diversity of the Arctic Terrestrial Fauna.- 6.1 Number of Species in the Arctic Fauna.- 6.2 Patterns and Causes of Biodiversity Changes in the Arctic.- 6.3 Taxonomic Composition and Functional Groups.- 6.4 Biotagenesis.- 6.5 Species Structure of Arctic Communities.- 6.6 Intraspecies Diversity.- 6.7 Correlation Between Forms of Diversity in Arctic Biomes.- 6.8 Conclusions.- References.- 7 Animal Diversity at High Altitudes in the Austrian Central Alps.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Altitudinal Zonation of the Main Groups of Animals.- 7.3 Species Numbers of Invertebrates and Altitudinal Zonation.- 7.4 Animal Communities Above the Timberline.- 7.5 Altitude-Related Changes in Abundance and Biomass of the Soil Fauna.- 7.6 Endemism and Vicariance in the Alpine Fauna.- 7.7 Conclusions.- References.- II: Past, Present, and Future Changes in Diversity.- 8 Arctic Tundra Biodiversity: A Temporal Perspective from Late Quaternary Pollen Records.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Late Quaternary Climate History.- 8.3 What Were the Composition and Regional Patterns of Tundra During Periods of Different Late Quaternary Climate?.- 8.4 What Were the Patterns of Shrub and Tree Invasions into Tundra When Climate Warmed at the End of the Last Glacial Period?.- 8.5 What Major Changes in Ecosystem Processes Accompanied the Conversion of Tundra to Forest at the End of the Last Glacial Period?.- 8.6 Conclusion.- References.- 9 Effects of Mammals on Ecosystem Change at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Mammahan Effects on Ecosystem Processes.- 9.3 Hypotheses for the Steppe-Tundra Transition.- 9.4 Conclusions.- References.- 10 Palaeorecords of Plant Biodiversity in the Alps.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Possibilities and Limitations of the Fossil Record.- 10.3 Temporal Changes in Biodiversity in the Alps — Three Examples.- 10.4 Needs for Future Research.- 10.5 Conclusions.- References.- 11 Implications for Changes in Arctic Plant Biodiversity from Environmental Manipulation Experiments.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Mechanisms of Change in Biodiversity.- 11.3 Responses of Soils to Environmental Manipulations: Implications for Plant Nutrition and Biodiversity.- 11.4 Direct Responses of Plants to Environmental Perturbations and Implications for Changes in Populations, Communities and Biodiversity.- 11.5 Conclusions.- References.- 12 Patterns and Current Changes in Alpine Plant Diversity.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 The Altitudinal Limits of Plant Life.- 12.3 Patterns of Diversity.- 12.4 Effects of Global Warming on Diversity.- 12.5 Conclusions.- References.- 13 Anthropogenic Impacts on Biodiversity in the Arctic.- 13.1 Proximate Causes.- 13.2 Social Drivers.- 13.3 Arctic Interactions.- 13.4 Humans as Components of Arctic Ecosystems.- 13.5 Conclusions.- References.- III: Ecosystem Consequences of Diversity.- 14 Plant Functional Diversity and Resource Control of Primary Production in Alaskan Arctic Tundras.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Resource Uptake.- 14.3 Effects on Community Productivity.- 14.4 Conclusions.- References.- 15 Direct and Indirect Effects of Plant Species on Biogeochemical Processes in Arctic Ecosystems.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Direct Influence over Biogeochemistry.- 15.3 Indirect Influence over Biogeochemistry.- 15.4 Predictions of Species’ Effects with Climate Warming.- 15.5 Approaches to Studying the Role of Species in Biogeochemistry.- 15.6 Conclusions.- References.- 16 Causes and Consequences of Plant Functional Diversity in Arctic Ecosystems.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Predicting Species Response to Global Change.- 16.3 Effects of Species on Ecosystem Processes.- 16.4 Species Diversity as Insurance Against Loss of Function.- 16.5 Conclusions.- References.- 17 Ecosystem Consequences of Microbial Diversity and Community Structure.- 17.1 Introduction.- 17.2 “Broad” Processes.- 17.3 “Narrow” Processes.- 17.4 Stress.- 17.5 Implications for Tundra.- 17.6 Overall Considerations.- 17.7 Conclusions.- References.- 18 Diversity of Biomass and Nitrogen Distribution Among Plant Species in Arctic and Alpine Tundra Ecosystems.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 Concepts of Diversity.- 18.3 Patterns of Diversity of Carbon and Nitrogen Distribution.- 18.4 Experimental Tests of Controls over Diversity.- 18.5 Towards a Dynamic Model of Diversity in Tundra Ecosystems.- 18.6 Conclusions.- References.- 19 The Plant-Vertebrate Herbivore Interface in Arctic Ecosystems.- 19.1 Introduction.- 19.2 Patterns of Vegetation and Vertebrate Herbivory in Arctic Tundra.- 19.3 Vertebrate Herebivory in a Warming Climate: Implications for Tundra Biodiversity.- 19.4 Effects of Anthropogenic Disturbances on Trophic Interactions — A Potential Climatic Change Scenario.- 19.5 Conclusions.- 19.6 Summary.- References.- 20 Insect Diversity, Life History, and Trophic Dynamics in Arctic Streams, with Particular Emphasis on Black Flies (Diptera: Simuliidae).- 20.1 Introduction.- 20.2 Arctic Insect Diversity.- 20.3 Black Fly Life History Features.- 20.4 Trophic Dynamics.- 20.5 Organic Matter Processing by Black Flies in an Arctic Lake Outlet.- 20.6 Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 21 Land-Water Interactions: The Influence of Terrestrial Diversity on Aquatic Ecosystems.- 21.1 Introduction.- 21.2 Inputs from Land and the Regulation of Aquatic Systems.- 21.3 Terrestrial Diversity.- 21.4 Movement of Material from Land to Water.- 21.5 Conclusions.- References.- IV: A Synthesis.- 22 Patterns, Causes, Changes, and Consequences of Biodiversity in Arctic and Alpine Ecosystems.- 22.1 The Arctic and Alpine Biota.- 22.2 Past, Present, and Future Changes in Biodiversity.- 22.3 The Significance of Biodiversity for Ecosystem Function.- 22.4 Conclusions.