Temperature and Life

Poikilothermic Organisms.- Microorganisms.- I. Basic Aspects of Temperature Action on Microorganisms.- A. Influence of Temperature on the Growth and Multiplication of Microorganisms.- 1. Growth of Cells.- 2. Effects of Temperature on Reproduction.- 3. Growth Curves.- B. Heat Killing of Microorganisms.- 1. Time Course of Heat Killing of Microorganisms.- 2. The Time-Temperature Relation of Heat Killing.- 3. Factors Affecting the Heat Resistance of Vegetative Bacteria.- a) The Effect of Water.- b) The Effect of Salts and Ions.- c) The Effect of Proteins.- d) The Effect of Oils and Fats.- e) The Effect of pH.- f) The Effect of Age.- g) The Effect of Growth Temperature.- 4. Resistance Adaptation.- a) General Remarks.- b) Mechanisms of Resistance Adaptation.- c) Recovery of Heat-Injured Microorganisms.- C. Adaptive Temperature Responses.- 1. Capacity Adaptation.- 2. Examples of Capacity Adaptation of Microbial Activities.- 3. Mechanisms of Capacity Adaptation.- 4. Time Course of Capacity Adaptation.- D. Response of Microorganisms to Subzero Temperatures.- 1. Influence of Freezing Temperature, Freezing Time, and Freezing Rate.- 2. Influence of Defrosting.- 3. Influence of Repeated Freezing and Thawing.- 4. Sensitivity of Microorganisms to Freezing.- 5. Recovery of Frost-Injured Microorganisms.- 6. Influence of Freezing on the Metabolism of Microorganisms.- 7. Interaction between Microorganisms and Menstrua during Freezing and Defrosting.- a) The Phases of Frost Killing.- b) Protective Action against Frost Killing.- 8. Metabolic Activities of Microorganisms and Microbial Enzymes at Subzero Temperatures.- 9. Mechanisms of Freezing Injury.- 10. Cold Shock.- E. Thermophilic Organisms.- 1. General Remarks.- 2. Cellular Mechanisms of Growth at High Temperatures.- F. Effect of Temperature on Bacterial Spores.- 1. Properties and Heat Resistance of Spores.- 2. Heat Activation of Spores.- 3. Heat Killing of Spores.- II. Genetic Regulation of Temperature Responses.- A. Introduction.- B. Genetic Determination of Heat Stability of Proteins.- C. Loss of Function at Low Temperatures.- D. Mutations which Decrease the Temperature Range for Growth.- E. Biochemical Basis of Cold-Sensitivity.- F. Adaptation to New Temperature Ranges for Growth.- G. Mutations which Extend the Temperature Range of Growth.- H. Direct Temperature Effects on Nucleic Acids.- I. Summary.- References.- Plants.- I. Plant Temperatures and Energy Budget.- A. Introduction.- B. Radiation.- C. Convective Heat Exchange.- D. Transpiration.- E. Energy Budget Equation.- II. The Normal Temperature Range.- A. Effect of Temperature on Metabolic Processes.- A 1. Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 1. Photosynthesis (A. PISEK).- a) Basic Aspects of Photosynthesis.- b) Cardinal Temperatures of Photosynthesis in General.- c) Temperature Curves for Net Photosynthesis.- d) Cardinal Temperatures of Photosynthesis in Various Plants.- ?) Plants from Different Altitudes in the Central European Alps and from their Sub-Mediterranean Southern Foot.- ?) Additional Facts Concerning Temperature Dependence and Cardinal Temperatures of Photosynthesis.- e) Experimental Adaptation: Extent and Speed of the Reactions Involved.- 2. Respiration (A. Pisek).- 3. Transformations and Translocation of Carbohydrates (W. Larcher).- a) Temperature-Dependent Conversions of Carbohydrates.- b) The Influence of Temperature on the Translocation of Carbohydrates.- A 2. Temperature Dependence of other Metabolic Processes (W. Larcher).- 1. The Influence of Temperature on the Water Balance of Higher Plants.- a) Water Uptake.- b) Water Transport.- c) Transpiration.- 2. Influence of Temperature on the Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants.- B. Effect of Temperature on Growth and Development.- B 1. Dependence of the Growth Processes on Temperature (A. Vegis).- 1. Dormancy of Buds and Seeds.- a) Phases of the Rest Period and the Various Kinds of Dormancy.- b) Temperature Range for Seed Germination and Bud Break in Relation to the Depth of Dormancy during the Rest Period.- ?) Narrowed Range for Germination and Bud Break at Low Temperatures.- ?) Narrowed Range for Germination and Bud Break at High Temperatures.- ?) Narrowed Range for Germination of Seeds and Bud Break at Intermediate Temperatures.- ?) Two Narrow Germination Temperature Ranges.- c) Effect of Alternating Temperatures.- d) The Role of Enclosing Structures in the Induction of Dormancy and in Narrowing the Temperature Range for Germination of Seeds and Bud Break.- e) The Role of Low Temperatures in the Abolition of Dormancy.- ?) Stratification of Seeds.- ?) Chilling Requirements of Buds.- ?) Induction of Flower-Bud Opening by Decrease in Temperature.- 2. Temperature Requirements for the Growth and Development of Plants.- a) Development of Tulipa Bulbs.- b) Development of Iris Bulbs.- c) Development of Hippeasirum.- d) Thermoperiodicity.- B 2. Low Temperature Effect on Flower Formation: Vernalization (K. Napp-Zinn).- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Kinetics of Vernalization.- a) Vernalization in the Strict Sense.- ?) Criteria of Vernalization.- ?) Cold-Requiring Phanerogams.- ?) Cold Requirement and Cold Resistance.- ?) Locus of Perception.- ?) Plants with and without a Juvenile Phase.- ?) The Role of Soaking in the Vernalization of Seed.- ?) Effective Temperatures.- ?) Vernalization and Light Conditions.- b) The Promotion of Later Stages of Flower Formation by Cold.- ?) Flower Initiation.- ?) Sex Determination.- ?) Flower Unfolding.- c) Similar Phenomena in Lower Plants.- 3. The Genetic Basis of Vernalization Requirements.- 4. Physiological Analysis.- a) Kinetic Analysis.- b) Grafting and Decapitation.- c) Nutrition.- d) Breakdown of Reserve Materials.- e) Nucleic Acids, Proteins and Amino Acids.- f) Additional Observations of a Cell-Physiological Nature.- g) Growth Substances.- ?) Auxins and Antiauxins.- ?) Gibberellins and Antigibberellins.- ?) Other Growth Substances.- h) Phytochrome.- i) Concluding Remarks.- III. Limiting Temperatures for Life Functions.- A. Gradual Progress of Damage Due to Temperature Stress (W. Larcher).- 1. Effect of Extreme Temperatures on Protoplasmic Streaming.- 2. Respiratory Behavior.- 3. Depression of Photosynthetic Capacity.- B. Temperature Resistance and Survival (W. Larcher).- 1. Avoidance.- a) Frost Avoidance by Delay or Prevention of Ice Formation in Tissues.- b) Heat Avoidance by Means of Reduction of Radiation Absorption and by Transpirational Cooling.- 2. Tolerance.- a) Variability of Heat and Frost Tolerance.- ?) Influence of Stage of Development and Age.- ?) Seasonal Course of Resistance and Short-Term Adaptive Phenomena (Adjustments).- ?) The Influence of Various Environmental Stimuli on Temperature Resistance.- b) Specificity of Temperature Resistance.- ?) Constitutional Differences.- ?) Differences in Resistance between Species and Varieties.- ?) Differences in Resistance between Organs and Tissues.- 3. Survival Limits of Plants.- C. Cell Death by Cold and Heat, and Resistance to Extreme Temperatures. Mechanisms of Hardening and Dehardening (U. Heber and K. A. Santarius).- 1. Low Temperatures.- a) Introduction.- b) Phenomenology of Cell Freezing.- c) Changes in a Cell System Brought about by Freezing.- d) Susceptibility of Cell Components.- e) Causes of Injury.- ?) Temperature Effects.- ?) Mechanical Damage by Ice Crystals.- ?) Reduction of Cell Volume.- ?) Toxicity of Cell Components.- ?) Osmotic Injury.- f) Mechanisms of Injury.- g) Modes of Protection.- ?) Sugars and Sugar Derivatives.- ?) Organic Acids.- ?) Amino Acids.- ?) Non-Physiological Solutes.- ?) Proteins.- ?) Other Compounds.- h) Mechanisms of Protection.- i) Development of Resistance.- 2. High Temperatures.- a) Introduction.- b) Heat Sensitivity of Cell Components.- c) Causes of Heat Injury.- d) Heat Resistance.- References.- Animals.- I. Body Temperature and External Temperature.- A. Regulation of Body Temperature in Invertebrates.- 1. Body Temperatures above Environmental Temperatures.- a) Individual Thermoregulation.- b) Social Thermoregulation in Insects.- 2. Heat Output at High Body Temperatures.- B. Regulation of Body Temperature in Poikilothermic Vertebrates.- 1. Fishes.- 2. Amphibia.- 3. Reptiles.- II. The Normal Temperature Range.- II 1. Constant Systems (H. Precht).- II 1 a. The First, Usually Ascending, Sections of the Curves.- A. Direct Responses.- 1. Relation of Biological Processes to Experimental Temperature.- a) Experimental Procedure.- b) Presentation of Q10 and µ Values.- c) Low Temperature Coefficients, and Other Special Cases.- d) The Thermal Dependence of Michaelis’ Constant (B. Havsteen).- e) The Relationship between Q10 and the Kinetic Parameters (B. Havsteen).- f) Enthalphy-Entropy Compensation Phenomena in Aqueous Solutions. A Ubiquitous Property of Water? (B. Havsteen).- ?) Observations.- ?) Characterization.- ?) Thermodynamics.- ?) Generalizations.- g) Body Size and Relation to Experimental Temperature.- h) Relation of the Temperature Coefficient of the ET Curve to the Acclimation Temperature.- 2. Effects of Temperature Changes.- a) Overshoots and Other Responses.- b) Transitory After-Effects.- B. Regulation by Control Systems.- C. Acclimations, Acclimatizations, Adaptations.- 1. Changes in Body Composition.- a) Water Content.- b) Salts, Ions.- c) Proteins, Fats, RNA, DNA, etc..- 2. Capacity Adaptations.- a) Genetic Adaptations.- ?) Organisms from Habitats of Different Temperature Regimes.- ?) Steno- and Eurythermal Forms.- b) Non-Genetic Adaptations.- ?) Experimental Design and Classification of Types.- ?) Significance and Distribution of Non-Genetic Capacity Adaptations.- ?) Restriction of Capacity Adaptation to Specific Ranges of Acclimation Temperature.- ?) The Time Course of Capacity Adaptation.- ?) Capacity Adaptation on Various Levels.- ?) Pre-Treatment under Varying Conditions.- ?) Further Investigations on the Mechanism of Capacity Adaptation.- II 1 b. Inflection Points and Descending Parts of the Curves.- II 2. Changing Reaction Systems H. Laudien.- A. Effect of Temperature on Processes of Growth and Development.- 1. Constant-Temperature Conditions.- a) Lower Limiting Temperature.- b) Central Temperature Range.- c) Optimum Temperature.- d) Supraoptimal Temperatures.- e) Mathematical Formulation of the Relation between Rates of Development and Temperature.- 2. Effects of Variable Temperature on Processes of Growth and Development.- a) Adaptational Phenomena of Developmental Processes.- b) Temperatures which Change Regularly during the Day.- c) The Effect of Short-Term Treatment with Extreme Temperatures.- d) On the Applicability of Laboratory Experiments to Field Conditions.- 3. Life Span.- 4. Mortality.- 5. Fecundity.- 6. Nutritional Requirements and Synthetic Processes.- a) Food Consumption.- b) Respiration.- c) Synthetic Processes.- 7. The Effect of Temperature on Associations between Different Species.- B. Morphological Effects of Normal and Extreme Temperatures.- 1. Mutations.- 2. Meiosis, Mitosis, and Cellular Processes.- a) Mitosis and Meiosis.- b) Relation of Gene Penetrance to Temperature.- c) Temporal Limitation of Temperature Sensitivity.- 3. Effects on Sex Ratio.- a) Indirect and Direct Influences.- b) Sensitive Periods.- c) Mechanisms of Influence.- d) Sex Ratio in the Annual Cycle.- 4. Type of Reproduction.- 5. Influence of Temperature on Form, Color and Size.- a) Size and Form.- b) Cyclomorphosis.- c) Color.- d) Seasonal Dimorphism.- e) Final Size.- C. Resting Stages in Development and Their Induction or Termination by the Effect of Temperature.- 1. Quiescence.- 2. Diapause.- a) Obligatory and Facultative Diapause, “Parapause”.- b) Induction of Diapause by Temperature.- c) Intensity of Diapause.- d) Termination of Diapause.- e) Relation between Developmental Arrest and the Endogenous Annual Clock.- f) Distinction between the Concept of Diapause and Other Inhibitions of Development.- III. Limiting Temperatures of Life Functions.- A. Limiting Temperatures.- 1. Factors which Influence Limiting Temperatures.- 2. Limiting Temperatures and their Measurement.- 3. Bases of Resistance and Possibilities of Changing Them.- a) Upper Temperature Limits.- b) Low Limiting Temperatures.- B. On the Problem of Hardening.- C. Regulations by Control Systems.- D. Resistance Adaptations.- 1. Genetic Adaptations.- a) Distribution Limited by Temperature.- b) Genetically Conditioned Temperature Limits.- 2. Non-Genetic Adaptations.- a) Occurrence and Meaning.- b) Adaptation on Different Levels.- c) The Time Course of Resistance Adaptation.- d) Varied Preliminary Exposures.- e) Long-Lasting Influences.- IV. Activity, Behavior etc..- A. Temperature and Behavior.- 1. Lower Temperature Limits.- 2. Constant Temperatures in the Moderate Range.- 3. Responses to Temperature Change.- 4. Upper Limiting Temperatures.- 5. Adaptation Phenomena of Movements.- 6. Effect of Temperature on Daily Activity Rhythms of Behavior.- 7. Effect of Temperature on Learning and Memory.- B. Temperature Senses.- 1. Temperature Receptors and Their Functions.- 2. Behavior Leading to Avoidance of Unfavorable Temperatures.- a) Temperature Choice as a Problem in Orientation.- b) Orientation in Temperature-Stimulus Fields with Gradients.- c) Orientation in Temperature-Stimulus Fields without Gradients.- ?) Animals as Sources of Heat.- ?) The Sun as a Heat Source.- d) Temperature as an Inducer of Tactic or Instinctive Behavior.- e) Temperature Regulation by Instinctive Behavior.- References.- Homeothermic Organisms.- I. Homeothermy and Poikilothermy.- II. Body Temperatures.- A. The Temperature Field of the Body.- 1. Radial and Axial Temperature Gradients.- 2. Skin and Subcutaneous Temperature.- 3. Core Temperature.- 4. Temperature of Body Orifices.- B. Body Temperature and External Temperature.- C. Periodic Fluctuations in Body Temperature.- 1. Diurnal Fluctuations.- 2. Longer Temperature Periods.- III. Principles of Thermoregulation.- A. Concept of Regulation.- B. Biological Temperature Regulation.- C. Disturbances of Thermoregulation.- D. Interference of Regulations.- IV. Production of Body Heat.- A. Basal Metabolism.- B. Heat Production and Body Size.- C. Heat Production and External Temperature.- D. The Modes and Sites of Extra Heat Production.- E. Brown Adipose Tissue and Its Significance for Nonshivering Thermogenesis.- V. Heat Exchange with the Environment.- A. Pathways of Heat Transport.- 1. Heat Flow from the Body Interior to the Skin Surface.- 2. Heat Flow between Body and Environment.- B. Physiological Regulation of Heat Flux.- 1. Blood Flow through the Skin and Mucous Membranes.- 2. Hair, Feathers, and Air Sacs.- 3. Ventilation Volume.- 4. Salivary Cooling.- 5. Water Loss from the Skin.- 6. Total Evaporation and Air Temperature.- 7. Body Posture.- 8. Parental Behavior.- VI. Nervous and Hormonal Factors in Temperature Regulation.- A. Central Nervous Structures of Temperature Regulation.- 1. Extirpation Experiments.- 2. Thermoreceptive Structures (Other than Cutaneous Thermoreceptors).- 3. Thermointegrative Structures and Processing of Temperature Information in the Central Nervous System.- B. Control of Effector Systems.- C. Central Transmitting Substances and Thermoregulation.- D. Peripherally Induced Processes.- 1. Direct Effects of Temperature on Cutaneous Blood Flow.- 2. Direct Effects of Temperature on Sweat Secretion.- 3. Direct Effects of Temperature on Anterior Horn Cells and Shivering.- 4. Initiation of Thermoregulatory Responses by Thermal Stimulation of Limited Skin Areas (“Reflex Control”).- E. Body Temperature as the Controlled Variable. Displacements of the “Set Point”.- 1. Periodic Fluctuations of Body Temperature.- 2. Fever.- 3. Long-Term Adaptation.- 4. Central Nervous Diseases.- 5. Psychogenic Effects (Emotional Reactions). Vigilance.- F. Body Temperature during Work.- VII. Cutaneous Thermoreception.- A. Thermal Sensations in Man.- 1. Structure of Sensation.- 2. Thermal Sensations and Temperature.- B. Neurophysiology of Thermoreceptors.- 1. Classifications and General Properties.- 2. Morphological Structures.- 3. Electrophysiology of Thermoreceptors in Homeotherms.- 4. Comparative Electrophysiology of Thermoreceptors.- C. Comparison of Various Approaches to Thermoreceptor Function.- 1. Temperature Sensation and Neural Activity.- 2. Thermal Comfort and Temperature Regulation.- 3. Behavioral Responses in Animals.- VIII. Long-Term Thermal Adaptation.- A. Adaptation to Cold.- 1. In Animals.- 2. Cold-Adaptation in Man.- B. Adaptation to Heat.- 1. Heat Adaptations in Animals.- 2. Heat Adaptation in Man.- C. Endocrine System and Thermal Adaptation.- 1. Thyroid.- 2. Adrenals.- 3. Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System.- D. Artificial Thermal Adaptation.- IX. Temperature Limits of Life.- A. Limits of Regulation in Heat.- 1. Weakly Sweating Animals.- 2. Man and Strongly Sweating Mammals.- B. Hyperthermia.- 1. General Heat Injuries.- 2. General Heat Death.- 3. Local Effects of Heat.- C. Limits of Regulation in Cold.- 1. Limits of Regulation in Animals.- 2. Limits of Regulation in Man.- D. Hypothermia.- 1. The Course of Hypothermia in Animal Experiments.- 2. Hypothermia in Man.- 3. General Cold Death.- 4. Local Effects of Cold.- 5. Deep Cooling of Organs and Tissues.- X. Temperature and Development.- A. Spermatogenesis.- B. Effects of Temperature on Growth.- C. Ontogenetic Development of Homeothermy.- 1. The Significance of Body Size and Shape.- 2. Comparison of Effector Systems.- 3. Neutral Zone, Range of Regulation (“Tolerated Ambient Temperature Range”).- 4. Deep-Body Temperatures; Stability of Body Temperature; Quality of the Neonatal Control System; “Set Point”.- 5. Thermal and Other External Effects on the Development of Temperature Regulation.- D. Tolerance of Hypothermia by Homeothermic Species in the Course of Development.- XI. Hibernation and Related Phenomena.- A. Distribution of Hibernation and Other Lethargic States.- B. Torpidity among Birds.- C. The Lethargy of Bats.- D. True Hibernation.- 1. Readiness for Hibernation.- 2. Onset of Hibernation.- 3. Arousal.- 4. Temperature Regulation.- 5. Respiration.- 6. Metabolism.- 7. Heart and Circulation.- 8. Hormonal Changes.- 9. Attempts at Artificial Induction of Hibernation.- XII. Temperature and Geographic Distribution of Homeotherms.- A. General Remarks.- B. Temperature Conditions in Various Biotopes.- C. Temperature and Migration.- D. Special Characteristics of Chiroptera.- E. Physiological Causes of Geographic Temperature Limits.- F. Ecogeographical Rules.- G. Eurythermic and Stenothermic Species.- H. Adaptation to Various Climates.- 1. Tropical Climate.- 2. Desert Climate.- 3. Polar Climate.- I. Temperature and Productivity of Domestic Animals.- References.