Small Stress Proteins

Evolution and Diversity of Prokaryotic Small Heat Shock Proteins.- 1 Introduction.- 2 sHsps in Prokaryotes.- 3 Are sHsps Dispensable in Some Pathogenic Bacteria?.- 4 Phylogenetic Analysis of Prokaryotic sHsps.- 5 Lateral Transfer or Convergent Evolution of Prokaryotic sHsp Genes.- 6 Secondary Structure Prediction of the a-Crystallin Domain.- 7 Alignment and Secondary Structure Prediction of the N-Terminal Domain.- 8 Summary and Concluding Remarks.- References.- Discovery of Two Distinct Small Heat Shock Protein (HSP) Families in the Desert Fish Poeciliopsis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Variation in Small HSPs Among Desert Species of Poeciliopsis.- 2.1 Results of Survey Among Species.- 2.2 HSP Isoforms as Primary Gene Products.- 2.3 Conclusions.- 3 Variation in Small HSPs Within Poeciliopsis Species.- 3.1 Results of Within-Species Survey.- 3.2 Conclusions.- 4 Discovery of Two Classes of Small HSPs in a Single Taxon.- 4.1 Differential Synthesis.- 4.2 Phosphorylation State of the Small HSPs.- 4.3 Sequence Analysis.- 4.4 Evolutionary Analysis.- 4.5 Conclusions.- References.- Chaperone Function of sHsps.- 1 Introduction.- 2 General Aspect of Chaperone function.- 2.1 Chaperones.- 2.2 Analysis of Chaperone function.- 3 The Chaperone Properties of sHsps.- 3.1 In Vivo Functions of sHsps.- 3.2 sHsps Bind Non-Native Protein.- 3.3 Complex Formation and Substrate Range.- 3.4 The Substrate Binding Site.- 3.5 Mechanism of Substrate Binding.- 3.6 Regulation of Functional Properties.- 3.7 sHsps in the Context of the Cellular Chaperone Machinery.- 4 Conclusions.- References.- The Small Heat Shock Proteins of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans: Structure, Regulation and Biology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Small Heat Shock Protein Family of C. elegans.- 3 The 16-kDa Stress Proteins (Hspl6s).- 3.1 Hspl6 Gene Organization.- 3.2 Hspl6 Regulation.- 3.3 Biochemical Properties of Hspl6s.- 3.4 Uses of Hspl6 Promoters in C. elegans Research.- 4 The 12-kDa Small Heat Shock Proteins (Hspl2s).- 5 SIP-1.- 6 Hspl7.5.- 7 Hsp25.- 8 Hsp43.- 9 Conclusions and Prospects.- References.- Drosophila Small Heat Shock Proteins: Cell and Organelle-Specific Chaperones?.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Members of the Small Heat Shock Proteins Family.- 3 Transcriptional Regulation.- 3.1 Organisation of Chromatin.- 3.2 Stress-Induced Activation by the Heat Shock Factor.- 3.3 Developmental Transcription of shsp Genes.- 3.3.1 Regulation Cascade Induced by Ecdysone.- 3.3.2 Tissue- and Cell-Specific Enhancers.- 4 Intracellular Localisation-Analysis of Targeting Signals.- 5 Biochemical Properties and Post-Translational Modifications.- 6 Stress-Induced Expression of sHsp.- 6.1 Cell-Specific Response of sHsp.- 6.2 Functions of sHsp Under Stress Conditions.- 7 Developmental Expression of sHsp.- 7.1 Stage, Tissue, and Cell Specificity.- 7.1.1 Embryogenesis.- 7.1.2 Germ Line.- 7.1.3 Ageing.- 7.2 Functions of sHsp During Normal Development.- 7.2.1 Interaction with the SUMO-Conjugating Enzyme Ubc9.- 7.2.2 Modulation of Specific Biological Activity.- 8 Conclusion.- References.- The Developmental Expression of Small HSP.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Small HSP in Extraembryonic Development.- 3 Small HSP in Ectodermal Lineages.- 3.1 Neural Crest Cell Derivatives.- 3.2 Neurectoderm.- 3.3 Expression in the Skin.- 4 Small HSP in Mesodermal Lineages.- 4.1 Small HSP in Muscle Development.- 4.1.1 The Expression Pattern of sHSP in the Heart.- 4.1.2 The Expression Pattern of sHSP in Skeletal and Smooth Muscle.- 4.1.3 The Subcellular Localization of sHSP in Muscle.- 4.2 Small HSP in Other Mesodermal Lineages.- 4.2.1 Expression in Cartilage and Bones.- 4.2.2 Expression in the Derivatives of the Notochord.- 4.2.3 Expression in the Kidney.- 4.2.4 Expression in the Adrenal Glands.- 4.2.5 Expression in the Gonads.- 4.2.6 Expression in the Blood Cells.- 5 Small HSP in Endodermal Lineages.- 5.1 Expression in the Upper Digestive Tract.- 5.2 Expression in the Stomach And Intestine.- 5.3 Expression in the Bladder.- 6 Phosphorylation of sHSP During Development.- 7 Developmental Regulation of Small HSP Gene Expression.- 7.1 Regulation of ?A-crystallin Gene Transcription.- 7.2 Regulation of ?B-crystallin Gene Transcription.- 7.3 Regulation of HSP25 Gene Transcription.- 8 The Role of Small HSP in Development and Differentiation.- 8.1 The Chaperone function.- 8.2 The Direct or Indirect Actin-Binding Property.- 8.3 Small HSP and Intermediate Filaments.- 8.4 Small HSP and Apoptosis.- 8.5 Small HSP and the Response to Stress.- 8.6 Small HSP and Protein Degradation.- 9 Small HSP in the Development of Non-Mammals.- References.- Expression and Phosphorylation of Mammalian Small Heat Shock Proteins.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Modification of the Expression of Hsp27 and ?B-crystallin.- 2.1 Stimulation of Stress-Induced Expression of Hsp27 and ?B-crystallin by Modulators of the Arachidonic Acid Cascade.- 2.2 Modulation of Expression of Hsp27 and ?B-crystallin by Protein Kinases.- 2.3 Modulation of Expression of Hsp27 and ?B-crystallin by the Cellular Redox State.- 3 Phosphorylation of Small Hsps.- 3.1 Phosphorylation of Hsp27.- 3.1.1 Phosphorylation and Dissociation of Hsp27.- 3.2 Phosphorylation of Hsp20.- 3.3 Phosphorylation of ?B-crystallin.- 3.3.1 Phosphorylation of ?B-crystallin in Response to Stress and Enzymatic Activities Responsible for Phosphorylation.- 3.3.2 Phosphorylation of ?B-crystallin in Mitotic Cells.- References.- sHsp-Phosphorylation: Enzymes, Signaling Pathways and Functional Implications.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Identification of Phosphorylated sHsps.- 3 The Major Pathway for sHsp Phosphorylation Via p38 MAPK and MAPKAP Kinase 2.- 4 Other Pathways.- 5 Functional Aspects of sHsps-Phosphorylation.- 5.1 Phosphorylation and Oligomerisation.- 5.2 Speculations About the Function of sHsp Phosphorylation.- References.- Small Stress Proteins: Modulation of Intracellular Redox State and Protection Against Oxidative Stress.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cell Death Induced in Response to Oxidative Stress.- 3 sHsp Expression Protects Against Oxidative Stress-Induced Cell Death.- 3.1 Expression of sHsp Can Modulate the Intracellular Redox State.- 3.2 In Murine Fibroblasts Hsp27 Modulates Glutathione Level and Intracellular Redox State Through Upregulation of Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Activity.- 3.3 Hsp27 Expression Protects Against Protein Oxidation and the Inactivation of Key Anti-Oxidant Enzymes.- 3.4 Oligomerization as a Key Property Regulating sHsp Protective Activity Against Oxidative Stress.- 4 sHsp Expression Can Also Enhance Oxidative Stress Induced Cell Death.- 5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives.- References.- Small Stress Proteins: Novel Negative Modulators of Apoptosis Induced Independently of Reactive Oxygen Species.- 1 Introduction.- 2 sHsp Expression Protects Against Apoptosis Induced Independently of ROS Formation.- 2.1 Hsp27 Interferes with the Apoptotic Machinery Downstream of Cytochrome c Release from Mitochondria.- 2.2 Hsp27 Interferes with the Release of Cytochrome c from the Mitochondria: A Possible Consequence of the Modulation of a Cytoskeleton to the Mitochondria Apoptotic Pathway.- 2.3 Hsp27 Interferes with Apoptosis Induced by Death Ligands.- 2.4 Hsp27 Expression Generates Protection Against Heat Shock-Induced Apoptosis.- 2.5 Role of Hsp27 Phosphorylation and Oligomerization in the Protection Against Apoptosis.- 3 Hsp27 as Essential Anti-Apoptotic Protein During Early Cell Differentiation.- 4 Hsp27 Modulates Apoptosis in Vivo and Enhances the Tumorigenicity of Transformed Cells.- 5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives.- References.- Hsp27 as a Prognostic and Predictive Factor in Cancer.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Female Genital Tract.- 2.1 Breast.- 2.2 Endometrium, Ovary/Uterine Cervix.- 3 Nervous System and Digestive Tract.- 4 Hematological Malignancies.- 5 Genitourinary Tract.- 6 Tumors from Others Tissues.- 7 Conclusion.- References.- Cytoskeletal Competence Requires Protein Chaperones.- 1 Symmary.- 2 Human Diseases Caused by sHSF Mutations.- 2.1 Protein Inclusions Involving the Cytoskeleton and sHSPs.- 2.2 Cardiomyopathies and Eye Lens Cataract.- 3 sHSP Interaction with the Cytoskeleton.- 3.1 Association with Actin and Regulation of the Interaction.- 3.2 Interaction with Cytoskeleton Associated Proteins.- 3.3 Intermediate Filament and Microtubule Association.- 4 Functional Implications of the Interactions.- 4.1 Cell stress Identifies an Important Link Between Chaperones and the Cytoskeleton.- 4.2 sHSP Regulation of the Cytoskeleton in Unstressed Cells.- 5 The Chaperone-Cytoskeleton Complex. The Guardian of the Cytoplasm?.- References.- Hsp27 in the Nervous System: Expression in Pathophysiology and in the Aging Brain.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Constitutive Expression of Hsp27 in the Nervous System.- 2.1 Central Nervous System: Hsp27 in the Brain and Spinal Cord.- 2.2 Peripheral Nervous System.- 2.2.1 Dorsal Root Ganglia and Nodose Ganglion.- 2.2.2 Cardiac Neurons.- 3 Expression of Hsp27 in Pathophysiology.- 3.1 Heat Shock and Fever.- 3.2 Kainic Acid-Induced Seizures.- 3.3 Cortical Spreading Depression.- 3.4 Ischemia/Preconditioning and Cell Survival.- 3.5 Peripheral Nerve Injury.- 4 Expression of Hsp27 in Diseases of the Aging Brain.- 4.1 Neurodegenerative Diseases.- 4.2 Brain Tumors.- 5 Conclusions.- References.- Protection of Neuronal and Cardiac Cells by HSP27.- 1 Protective Effect of Heat Shock Proteins.- 2 Protective Effect of HSP27.- 3 Protective Effect of HSP27 in Neuronal and Cardiac Cells.- 3.1 Neuronal Cells.- 3.2 Cardiac Cells.- 4 Conclusion.- References.