Global Positioning System

1 Introduction.- 1.1 The origins of surveying.- 1.2 Development of global surveying techniques.- 1.2.1 Optical global triangulation.- 1.2.2 Electromagnetic global trilateration.- 1.3 History of the Global Positioning System.- 1.3.1 Navigating with GPS.- 1.3.2 Surveying with GPS.- 2 Overview of GPS.- 2.1 Basic concept.- 2.2 Space segment.- 2.2.1 Constellation.- 2.2.2 Satellites.- 2.2.3 Operational capabilities.- 2.2.4 Denial of accuracy and access.- 2.3 Control segment.- 2.3.1 Master control station.- 2.3.2 Monitor stations.- 2.3.3 Ground control stations.- 2.4 User segment.- 2.4.1 User categories.- 2.4.2 Receiver types.- 2.4.3 Information services.- 3 Reference systems.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Coordinate systems.- 3.2.1 Definitions.- 3.2.2 Transformations.- 3.3 Time systems.- 3.3.1 Definitions.- 3.3.2 Conversions.- 3.3.3 Calendar.- 4 Satellite orbits.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Orbit description.- 4.2.1 Keplerian motion.- 4.2.2 Perturbed motion.- 4.2.3 Disturbing accelerations.- 4.3 Orbit determination.- 4.3.1 Keplerian orbit.- 4.3.2 Perturbed orbit.- 4.4 Orbit dissemination.- 4.4.1 Tracking networks.- 4.4.2 Ephemerides.- 5 Satellite signal.- 5.1 Signal structure.- 5.1.1 Physical fundamentals.- 5.1.2 Components of the signal.- 5.2 Signal processing.- 5.2.1 Receiver design.- 5.2.2 Processing techniques.- 6 Observables.- 6.1 Data acquisition.- 6.1.1 Code pseudoranges.- 6.1.2 Phase pseudoranges.- 6.1.3 Doppler data.- 6.1.4 Biases and noise.- 6.2 Data combinations.- 6.2.1 Linear phase combinations.- 6.2.2 Code pseudorange smoothing.- 6.3 Atmospheric effects.- 6.3.1 Phase and group velocity.- 6.3.2 Ionospheric refraction.- 6.3.3 Tropospheric refraction.- 6.3.4 Atmospheric monitoring.- 6.4 Relativistic effects.- 6.4.1 Special relativity.- 6.4.2 General relativity.- 6.4.3 Relevant relativistic effects for GPS.- 6.5 Antenna phase center offset and variation.- 6.6 Multipath.- 6.6.1 General remarks.- 6.6.2 Mathematical model.- 6.6.3 Multipath reduction.- 7 Surveying with GPS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Terminology definitions.- 7.1.2 Observation techniques.- 7.1.3 Field equipment.- 7.2 Planning a GPS survey.- 7.2.1 General remarks.- 7.2.2 Presurvey planning.- 7.2.3 Field reconnaissance.- 7.2.4 Monumentation.- 7.2.5 Organizational design.- 7.3 Surveying procedure.- 7.3.1 Preobservation.- 7.3.2 Observation.- 7.3.3 Postobservation.- 7.3.4 Ties to control monuments.- 7.4 In situ data processing.- 7.4.1 Data transfer.- 7.4.2 Data processing.- 7.4.3 Trouble shooting and quality control.- 7.4.4 Datum transformations.- 7.4.5 Computation of plane coordinates.- 7.5 Survey report.- 8 Mathematical models for positioning.- 8.1 Point positioning.- 8.1.1 Point positioning with code ranges.- 8.1.2 Point positioning with carrier phases.- 8.1.3 Point positioning with Doppler data.- 8.2 Differential positioning.- 8.2.1 Basic concept.- 8.2.2 DGPS with code ranges.- 8.2.3 DGPS with phase ranges.- 8.3 Relative positioning.- 8.3.1 Phase differences.- 8.3.2 Correlations of the phase combinations.- 8.3.3 Static relative positioning.- 8.3.4 Kinematic relative positioning.- 8.3.5 Pseudokinematic relative positioning.- 9 Data processing.- 9.1 Data preprocessing.- 9.1.1 Data handling.- 9.1.2 Cycle slip detection and repair.- 9.2 Ambiguity resolution.- 9.2.1 General aspects.- 9.2.2 Basic approaches.- 9.2.3 Search techniques.- 9.2.4 Ambiguity validation.- 9.3 Adjustment, filtering, and smoothing.- 9.3.1 Least squares adjustment.- 9.3.2 Kalman filtering.- 9.3.3 Smoothing.- 9.4 Adjustment of mathematical GPS models.- 9.4.1 Linearization.- 9.4.2 Linear model for point positioning with code ranges.- 9.4.3 Linear model for point positioning with carrier phases.- 9.4.4 Linear model for relative positioning.- 9.5 Network adjustment.- 9.5.1 Single baseline solution.- 9.5.2 Multipoint solution.- 9.5.3 Single baseline versus multipoint solution.- 9.5.4 Least squares adjustment of baselines.- 9.6 Dilution of precision.- 9.7 Accuracy measures.- 9.7.1 Introduction.- 9.7.2 Chi-square distribution.- 9.7.3 Specifications.- 10 Transformation of GPS results.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Coordinate transformations.- 10.2.1 Cartesian coordinates and ellipsoidal coordinates.- 10.2.2 Global coordinates and local level coordinates.- 10.2.3 Ellipsoidal coordinates and plane coordinates.- 10.2.4 Height transformation.- 10.3 Datum transformations.- 10.3.1 Three-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.2 Two-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.3 One-dimensional transformation.- 10.4 Combining GPS and terrestrial data.- 10.4.1 Common coordinate system.- 10.4.2 Representation of measurement quantities.- 11 Software modules.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Planning.- 11.3 Data transfer.- 11.4 Data processing.- 11.5 Quality control.- 11.6 Network computations.- 11.7 Data base management.- 11.8 Utilities.- 11.9 Flexibility.- 12 Applications of GPS.- 12.1 General uses of GPS.- 12.1.1 Global uses.- 12.1.2 Regional uses.- 12.1.3 Local uses.- 12.2 Attitude determination.- 12.2.1 Theoretical considerations.- 12.2.2 Practical considerations.- 12.3 Airborne GPS for photo-control.- 12.4 Interoperability of GPS.- 12.4.1 GPS and Inertial Navigation Systems.- 12.4.2 GPS and GLONASS.- 12.4.3 GPS and other sensors.- 12.4.4 GPS and the Federal Radionavigation Plan.- 12.5 Installation of control networks.- 12.5.1 Passive control networks.- 12.5.2 Active control networks.- 13 Future of GPS.- 13.1 New application aspects.- 13.2 GPS modernization.- 13.2.1 Future GPS satellites.- 13.2.2 Augmented signal structure.- 13.3 GPS augmentation.- 13.3.1 Ground-based augmentation.- 13.3.2 Satellite-based augmentation.- 13.4 GNSS.- 13.4.1 GNSS development.- 13.4.2 GNSS/Loran-C integration.- 13.5 Hardware and software improvements.- 13.5.1 Hardware.- 13.5.2 Software.- 13.6 Conclusion.- References.