Seeds

<p>Chapter 1<br>Structure and Composition</p><p>1.1.  Introduction<br>1.2.  Seed structure<br>1.2.1. Embryo<br>1.2.2. Non-embryonic storage tissues<br>1.2.3. Testa – seed coat<br>1.3. Seed storage reserves<br>1.3.1. Carbohydrates<br>1.3.2. Oils (Neutral lipids)<br>1.3.3. Proteins<br>1.3.4. Phytin<br>1.3.5. Other constituents</p><p>Chapter 2<br>Development and Maturation</p><p>2.1. Fertilization<br>2.2. Embryogeny and storage tissue formation<br> 2.2.1. Embryonic tissues<br> 2.2.2. Endosperm<br> 2.2.3. Testa (seed coat)<br>2.3. Regulation of seed development<br> 2.3.1. Plant hormones<br> 2.3.2. Embryo polarity and patterning<br> 2.3.3. ABA content and sensitivity to ABA during development<br> 2.3.4. Regulation of the seed maturation program<br> 2.3.5. Epigenetic control of endosperm development<br> 2.3.6. Testa development and its interaction with the endosperm and embryo<br> 2.3.7. Somatic embryogenesis and apomixis<br>2.4. Germinability during development<br> 2.4.1. Ability to germinate during development<br> 2.4.2. Precocious germination: Vivipary and preharvest sprouting <br> 2.4.3. Role of preharvest drying in development of germinability<br>2.5. Maturation drying and the ‘switch’ to germination<br> 2.5.1. The acquisition of desiccation tolerance<br> 2.5.2. Protective mechanisms associated with drying<br>  2.5.2.1. Membranes, proteins and water replacement <br>  2.5.2.2. Gene expression and protein synthesis<br>  2.5.2.3. Other changes in metabolism associated with drying<br> 2.5.3. Gene expression changes upon rehydration<br>2.6. Late maturation events and seed drying<br> 2.6.1. Physiological maturity versus harvest maturity<br> 2.6.2. Seed development and seed quality<br> 2.6.3. Maturation drying and biophysical aspects of dry seeds</p><p>Chapter 3<br>Synthesis of Storage Reserves</p><p>3.1. Assimilates for grain and seed filling 3.1.1. Source of nutrients for storage reserve synthesis<br> 3.1.2. Import of nutrients into the developing seed<br> 3.1.3. Factors affecting seed production and quality<br>3.2. Deposition of reserves within storage tissues<br> 3.2.1. Starch synthesis<br>  3.2.1.1. Uses and modifications of starch<br> 3.2.2. Synthesis of polymeric carbohydrates other than starch<br> 3.2.3. Oil (triacylglycerol) synthesis<br>  3.2.3.1. Uses and modifications of fatty acids<br> 3.2.4. Storage protein synthesis<br>  3.2.4.1. Synthesis, processing and deposition of storage proteins<br>  3.2.4.2. Uses and modifications of storage proteins<br>  3.2.4.3. Regulation of storage protein synthesis<br> 3.2.5. Phytin synthesis<br> 3.2.6. Modifications of non-storage compounds to improve nutritional quality <br> </p><p><br>Chapter 4<br>Germination</p><p>4.1. Seed germination – definition and general features<br>4.2. Measurement of germination<br>4.3. Imbibition<br> 4.3.1. Uptake of water from the soil<br> 4.3.2. Phase I, imbibition and imbibitional damage<br> 4.3.3. Phase II, the lag phase<br> 4.3.4. Phase III, completion of germination<br> 4.3.5. Kinetics of imbibition<br>4.4. Respiration – oxygen consumption and mitochondrial development<br> 4.4.1. Pathways and products<br> 4.4.2. Respiration during imbibition and germination<br> 4.4.3. Mitochondrial development and oxidative phosphorylation<br> 4.4.4. Respiration under low oxygen conditions<br>4.5. RNA and protein synthesis<br> 4.5.1. Transcriptomes of dry and germinating seeds<br> 4.5.2. Proteomes of germinating seeds<br>4.6. The completion of germination<br> 4.6.1. Embryo growth potential verses enclosing tissue constraints in radicle emergence<br> 4.6.2. DNA synthesis and cell division (cell cycle)<br>4.7. Priming and the enhancement of germination</p><p>Chapter 5<br>Mobilization of Stored Reserves</p><p>5.1. Seedling growth patterns<br>5.2. Mobilization of stored reserves<br>5.3. Stored oligosaccharide catabolism<br>5.4. Pathways of starch catabolism<br> 5.4.1. Synthesis of sucrose<br>5.5. Mobilization of stored starch in cereal grains<br> 5.5.1. Synthesis and release of -amylase and other hydrolases from the aleurone layer<br> 5.5.2. Starch breakdown and the fate of the products of hydrolysis<br> 5.5.3. Hormonal control of starch mobilization<br> 5.5.4. Programmed cell death (PCD) of the aleurone layer and other tissues<br>5.6. Mobilization of stored carbohydrate reserves in dicots<br> 5.6.1. Starch-storing non-endospermic legumes<br> 5.6.2. Hemicellulose-storing endospermic legumes<br> 5.6.3. Hemicellulose-containing seeds other than legumes<br>5.7. Stored triacylglycerol (TAG) mobilization<br> 5.7.1. Mobilization of TAGs from oil bodies<br> 5.7.2. Role and formation of the glyoxysome<br> 5.7.3. Utilization of the products of TAG catabolism<br>5.8. Storage protein mobilization<br> 5.8.1. Protein mobilization during germination<br> 5.8.2. Protein mobilization following germination of cereals<br>  5.8.2.1. Uptake of amino acids and peptides into the embryo<br> 5.8.3. Protein mobilization following germination of dicots<br>5.8.4. Protease inhibitors<br>5.8.5. Utilization of liberated amino acids in dicot seedlings<br>5.9. Phytin mobilization<br>5.10. Control of reserve mobilization in dicots<br> 5.10.1. Regulation in endospermic dicots<br> 5.10.2. Regulation in non-endospermic dicots<br>  5.10.2.1. Mode of regulation by the axis</p><p>Chapter 6<br>Dormancy and the Control of Germination</p><p>6.1. Dormancy - its biological role <br>6.2. Categories of dormancy<br>6.3. Mechanisms of dormancy<br> 6.3.1. Blocks to germination within the embryo<br>  6.3.1.1. Undifferentiated embryo<br>  6.3.1.2. Immature embryo<br>  6.3.1.3. Chemical inhibitors<br />  6.3.1.4. Regulatory and metabolic constraints<br> 6.3.2. Blocks to germination by the covering layers<br>  6.3.2.1. Interference with water uptake<br>  6.3.2.2. Interference with gas exchange<br>  6.4.2.3. Prevention of exit of inhibitors from the embryo<br>  6.4.2.4. Mechanical restraint<br>6.4. Embryonic inadequacy – the causes<br> 6.4.1. Energy metabolism of dormant seeds<br>6.4.2. Genetic aspects of dormancy<br>6.5. The environment in dormancy perception  <br>6.6. The release from dormancy<br>6.6.1. Perception, signaling and role of hormones with respect to dormancy and germination<br> 6.6.1.1. Regulation by ABA<br> 6.6.1.2. Regulation by GA<br> 6.6.1.3. Regulation by ethylene and brassinosteroids<br> 6.6.1.4. ABA/GA balance and hormonal cross-talk in the regulation of dormancy<br>6.6.2. After-ripening<br>6.6.3. Low temperatures (chilling)<br>6.6.4. Other effects of temperature on dormancy<br>6.6.5. Light<br> 6.6.5.1. Phytochrome: action spectra<br> 6.6.5.2. Phytochrome: photoequilibria<br> 6.6.5.3. Phytochrome: multiple forms<br> 6.6.5.4. Phytochrome: downstream signaling<br> 6.6.6. Dormancy release of seeds with impermeable coats<br> 6.6.7. Breaking of dormancy by chemicals<br>  6.6.7.1. Breaking of dormancy by nitrate<br>  6.6.7.2. Breaking of dormancy by nitric oxide<br>  6.6.7.3. Breaking of dormancy by smoke</p><p>Chapter7<br>Environmental Regulation of Dormancy and Germination</p><p>7.1. Seed dispersal and burial<br> 7.1.1. The soil seed bank<br>7.2. Environmental control of germination<br> 7.2.1. Water<br>  7.2.1.1. Hydrotime model of germination<br>  7.2.1.2. Hydrotime and dormancy<br>  7.2.1.3. Ecological applications of the hydrotime model<br> 7.2.2. Temperature<br>7.2.2.1. Cardinal temperatures for seed germination<br>  7.2.2.2. Thermal time models<br>  <br>  7.2.2.3. Temperature and water interactions: hydrothermal time models<br /> 7.2.3. Light  7.2.3.1. Phytochrome responses <br> 7.2.4. Nitrate<br> 7.2.5. Oxygen and other gases<br> 7.2.6. Other chemicals<br>7.3. Secondary dormancy and seasonal variation<br> 7.3.1. Dormancy cycling<br> 7.3.2. Dormancy cycling: mechanisms and modeling<br>7.4. Influences of plant life cycle, distribution and origin on germination<br> 7.4.1. Plant distribution<br> 7.4.2. Seasonal and flowering interactions affecting dormancy</p><p>Chapter 8<br>Longevity, Storage and Deterioration</p><p>8.1. Ancient seeds<br>8.2. Longevity of seeds in storage<br> 8.2.1. Patterns of seed viability loss during storage<br> 8.2.2. Temperature, moisture content and seed longevity<br> 8.2.3. Other factors that affect seed viability during storage<br>8.3. Seed storage and conservation<br> 8.3.1. Short-term storage<br> 8.3.2. Long-term genetic conservation—ex situ seed gene banks<br> 8.3.3. Long-term genetic conservation—in situ Centers of Diversity<br>8.4. Mechanisms and consequences of deterioration in seeds<br> 8.4.1. Deterioration mechanisms in stored seeds<br> 8.4.2. Consequences of storage on germination<br>8.5. Mechanisms of after-ripening in dry seeds<br>8.6. Recalcitrant seeds</p>