1. Modern Microscopy.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2. Cryoelectron Microscopy.- 1.3. X-Ray Microscopy.- 1.4. Imaging by Magnetic Resonance Techniques.- 1.5. Confocal Optical Microscopy.- 1.6. Acoustic Microscopy.- 1.7. Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy.- 1.8. Summary.- References.- 2. Electron Microscopy of Biological Macromolecules: Frozen Hydrated Methods and Computer Image Processing.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Levels of Structure in Biological Material.- 2.3. Image Processing.- 2.3.1. Filtering.- 2.3.2. Regular Two-Dimensional Objects.- 2.3.3. Superposition Effects.- 2.3.4. Contrast Transfer Functions.- 2.3.5. Objects with Rotational Symmetry.- 2.3.6. Helical Objects.- 2.3.7. Three-Dimensional Reconstruction.- 2.3.8. Correction of Image Defects.- 2.4. Examination of Frozen Hydrated Material.- 2.4.1. Sample Preparation.- 2.4.2. Virus Particles.- 2.4.3. Crystals.- 2.4.4. Cytoskeletal and Other Cellular Components.- 2.4.5. Problems of Interpretation.- 2.4.6. Radiation Damage.- 2.5. Conclusions.- References.- 3. Radiation Sources for X-Ray Microscopy.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Electron-Impact Sources.- 3.3. Synchrotron Radiation.- 3.4. Plasma Sources.- 3.5. Microfocus Sources.- 3.6. Choice of Source.- References.- 4. Amplitude and Phase Contrast in X-Ray Microscopy.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Amplitude and Phase Contrast.- 4.3. Radiation Dosage.- 4.4. Results.- References.- 5. Scanning X-Ray Microscopy.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. X-Ray Optics.- 5.2.1. Status of Zone Plate Optics.- 5.2.2. Source Requirements: Coherence and Brilliance.- 5.3. X-Ray Sources.- 5.4. Scanning X-Ray Microscopes at Synchrotron Sources s.- 5.4.1. The King’s College Microscope at Daresbury.- 5.4.2. The Stony Brook/NSLS Scanning Microscope at Brookhaven.- 5.4.3. The Gottingen Scanning Microscope at BESSY.- 5.5. Summary and Future Work.- References.- 6. X-Ray Microradiography and Shadow Projection X-Ray Microscopy.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. X-Ray Sources.- 6.3. X-Ray Detectors.- 6.4. X-Ray Microradiography.- 6.5. Shadow Projection Microscopy.- 6.5.1. Thin-Film Targets.- 6.5.2. Real-Time Imaging and Image Processing.- 6.6. Conclusions.- References.- 7. Progress and Prospects in Soft X-Ray Holographic Microscopy.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. The New Technologies.- 7.3. X-Ray Holographic Experiments at the NSLS.- 7.4. Three-Dimensional Imaging.- 7.5. Diffraction Tomography.- 7.6. Future Developments.- References.- 8. Prospects for NMR Microscopy.- 8.1. The Development of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 8.2. The Dependence of Image Quality on Spatial Resolution and Tissue Contrast: The Biological Basis of Tissue Characterization.- 8.3. Clinical Value of Tissue Characterization by NMR.- 8.4. Cine-NMR for Cardiac Imaging.- 8.5. NMR Angiography.- 8.6. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Free Radicals and Oxygen Concentration.- 8.7. NMR Microscopy.- References.- 9. NMR Microscopy of Plants.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Experimental.- 9.3. Results and Discussion.- 9.4. Conclusions.- References.- 10. Confocal Optical Microscopy.- 10.1. Introduction.- 10.2. Basic Principles.- 10.3. The Principle of the Confocal Microscope.- 10.4. Multiple-Aperture Array (Tandem) Scanning Microscopes.- 10.5. Single-Beam (Laser) Confocal Scanning Microscopes.- 10.6. Results and Applications.- 10.6.1. Surface Imaging.- 10.6.2. Extended-Focus or Range Images.- 10.6.3. Stereo Imaging.- 10.6.4. Stereology.- 10.6.5. Image Processing.- 10.6.6. Fluorescence.- 10.7. Comparisons.- References.- 11. Acoustic Microscopy in Biology: An Engineer’s Viewpoint.- 11.1. Scope.- 11.2. Basic Physics of Ultrasound.- 11.2.1. Velocity.- 11.2.2. Acoustic Impedance.- 11.3. History.- 11.4. Instrumentation and Operation.- 11.4.1. The Acoustic Lens.- 11.4.2. Electronics, Scanning, and Image Display.- 11.4.3. Resolution.- 11.4.4. When is an Acoustic Microscope Not a Microscope?.- 11.5. Application to Soft Tissue.- 11.5.1. “Real-Time” Biopsy.- 11.5.2. Optical Microscopy and Medical Ultrasonics.- 11.5.3. Cell Attachment and Examination of Living Cells.- 11.5.4. Nonlinear Effects.- 11.6. Applications to Demineralization.- 11.7. Conclusion and the Future.- References.- 12. Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy.- 12.1. Introduction.- 12.2. Outline of Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy.- 12.3. Theory.- 12.4. Equipment and Instrumentation.- 12.5. Tip and Sample Preparation.- 12.6. STM of Organic Macromolecules.- 12.6.1. Introduction.- 12.6.2. Insulating Molecules: Contact and Substrate Effects.- 12.6.3. Semiinsulating and Conducting Molecules.- 12.7. Conclusions.- References.- 13. Resolution: A Biological Perspective.- 13.1. Overview.- 13.2. Introduction.- 13.3. Biological Structural Problems.- 13.4. Location of Specific Elements.- 13.5. Areas of Structural Biology Where New Techniques Might be Helpful.- 13.5.1. Living Systems.- 13.5.2. Dynamic Processes.- 13.5.3. Location of Selected Elements.- 13.5.4. Structure of Large Molecules at Atomic Resolution.- 13.5.5. Thick Specimens.- 13.6. Conclusions.- References.
