Addiction Research Methods

<p>List of contributors ix</p>
<p>Acknowledgements xiii</p>
<p>1 Introduction 1<br />Peter G. Miller, John Strang and Peter M. Miller</p>
<p>1.1 Introduction 1</p>
<p>1.2 Where to start? 1</p>
<p>1.3 Does theory matter? 2</p>
<p>1.4 The literature review 3</p>
<p>1.5 Which method suits my question is a screwdriver better than a saw? 4</p>
<p>1.6 Focus and structure of the book 5</p>
<p>1.7 Terminology 6</p>
<p>1.8 The need for a wider perspective and more careful selection of study design 8</p>
<p>Section I: Research Fundamentals</p>
<p>2 Reliability and validity 11<br />Gerhard B&uuml;hringer and Monika Sassen</p>
<p>2.1 Introduction 11</p>
<p>2.2 Background: Reliability and validity in addiction research 11</p>
<p>2.3 Reliability and validity in addiction research 16</p>
<p>2.4 Strengthening the quality of your results and conclusions: A brief checklist to improve reliability and validity 19</p>
<p>2.5 Summary 24</p>
<p>3 Sampling strategies for addiction research 27<br />Lisa Kakinami and Kenneth R. Conner</p>
<p>3.1 Introduction 27</p>
<p>3.2 Probability sampling 27</p>
<p>3.3 Non–probability sampling 32</p>
<p>3.4 Qualitative sampling 36</p>
<p>3.5 Selecting your sampling approach 37</p>
<p>3.6 Technical considerations 37</p>
<p>3.7 Conclusion 40</p>
<p>4 Experimental design issues in addiction research 43<br />Robert West</p>
<p>4.1 Introduction 43</p>
<p>4.2 What constitutes an experiment? 43</p>
<p>4.3 Is an experiment appropriate? 44</p>
<p>4.4 What kind of experimental design? 44</p>
<p>4.5 What intervention and comparison conditions? 48</p>
<p>4.6 What target population and recruitment strategy? 50</p>
<p>4.7 What sample size? 52</p>
<p>4.8 What outcome measures? 53</p>
<p>4.9 What statistical analyses? 55</p>
<p>4.10 Conclusions 56</p>
<p>5 Qualitative methods and theory in addictions research 59<br />Tim Rhodes and Ross Coomber</p>
<p>5.1 Introduction 59</p>
<p>5.2 Theory 59</p>
<p>5.3 A recurring debate 62</p>
<p>5.4 Principles for practice 63</p>
<p>5.5 Data generation 64</p>
<p>5.6 Analysis 70</p>
<p>5.7 Conclusions 73</p>
<p>6 Ethical issues in alcohol, other drugs and addiction–related research 79<br />Peter G. Miller, Adrian Carter and Wayne Hall</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 79</p>
<p>6.2 Key concepts 79</p>
<p>6.3 Major ethical frameworks 80</p>
<p>6.4 Addiction–specific ethical issues 83</p>
<p>6.5 Writing an ethics application 87</p>
<p>6.6 Ethical processes in different countries 87</p>
<p>6.7 Influence of funding body 88</p>
<p>6.8 Ethical dissemination 89</p>
<p>6.9 Conclusion 89</p>
<p>Section II: Basic Toolbox</p>
<p>7 Surveys and questionnaire design 97<br />Lorraine T. Midanik and Krista Drescher–Burke</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 97</p>
<p>7.2 Brief history 97</p>
<p>7.3 Survey research designs 98</p>
<p>7.4 Advantages and limitations of survey research designs 99</p>
<p>7.5 Modes of data collection 100</p>
<p>7.6 Questionnaire design 101</p>
<p>7.7 Piloting the questionnaire 104</p>
<p>7.8 Technological assistance 105</p>
<p>7.9 Common challenges 106</p>
<p>8 Interviews 109<br />Barbara S. McCrady, Benjamin Ladd, Leah Vermont and Julie Steele</p>
<p>8.1 Introduction 109</p>
<p>8.2 Why interviews? 109</p>
<p>8.3 Reliability and validity of self–reported information 110</p>
<p>8.4 Interviewing skills 112</p>
<p>8.5 Types of interviews 116</p>
<p>8.6 Types of interview data 118</p>
<p>8.7 Technological resources 120</p>
<p>8.8 Summary 120</p>
<p>9 Scales for research in the addictions 127<br />Shane Darke</p>
<p>9.1 Introduction 127</p>
<p>9.2 Screening instruments 128</p>
<p>9.3 Frequency of substance use 130</p>
<p>9.4 Multi–dimensional scales 133</p>
<p>9.5 Dependence 135</p>
<p>9.6 Psychopathology 139</p>
<p>9.7 Summary 143</p>
<p>10 Biomarkers of alcohol and other drug use 147<br />Scott H. Stewart, Anton Goldmann, Tim Neumann and Claudia Spies</p>
<p>10.1 Introduction 147</p>
<p>10.2 Uses of state biomarkers in research 147</p>
<p>10.3 General principles when considering biomarkers 149</p>
<p>10.4 Summary 156</p>
<p>11 Quantitative data analysis 163<br />Jim Lemon, Louisa Degenhardt, Tim Slade and Katherine Mills</p>
<p>11.1 Introduction 163</p>
<p>11.2 Imagining data planning the study 163</p>
<p>11.3 Collecting data gathering the measurements 165</p>
<p>11.4 Organising data structuring the measurements 166</p>
<p>11.5 Describing data what do the data look like? 167</p>
<p>11.6 Manipulating data 171</p>
<p>11.7 Relationships within the data 173</p>
<p>11.8 Interpreting relationships within the data 177</p>
<p>11.9 Conclusion and exercises 178</p>
<p>Section III: Real World Research Methods</p>
<p>12 Applied research methods 187<br />David Best and Ed Day</p>
<p>12.1 Introduction 187</p>
<p>12.2 Auditing clinical activity in the city 189</p>
<p>12.3 Needs assessment 190</p>
<p>12.4 Qualitative research approaches 192</p>
<p>12.5 Evaluation research 193</p>
<p>12.6 The audit cycle 197</p>
<p>12.7 Measuring outcomes in applied settings 197</p>
<p>12.8 Overview and conclusions 198</p>
<p>13 Conducting clinical research 201<br />Jalie A. Tucker and Cathy A. Simpson</p>
<p>13.1 Conducting clinical research 201</p>
<p>13.2 Discussion and conclusions: The role of the practitioner–researcher 211</p>
<p>Section IV: Biological Methods</p>
<p>14 Psychopharmacology 223<br />Jason White and Nick Lintzeris</p>
<p>14.1 Introduction 223</p>
<p>14.2 Psychopharmacology: drugs, behaviour, physiology and the brain 223</p>
<p>14.3 Measuring drug effects 226</p>
<p>14.4 Human drug self–administration 229</p>
<p>14.5 Drug withdrawal and craving 231</p>
<p>14.6 Summary 232</p>
<p>15 Imaging 235<br />Alastair Reid and David Nutt</p>
<p>15.1 Introduction 235</p>
<p>15.2 Introduction to neuroimaging 235</p>
<p>15.3 Imaging techniques 235</p>
<p>15.4 Image analysis 241</p>
<p>15.5 Some considerations when setting up an imaging study 244</p>
<p>16 Genes, genetics, genomics and epigenetics 249<br />David Ball and Irene Guerrini</p>
<p>16.1 Introduction 249</p>
<p>16.2 Animal studies 252</p>
<p>16.3 Quantitative genetics 254</p>
<p>16.4 Molecular genetics 256</p>
<p>16.5 Why bother? 263</p>
<p>16.6 An addiction gene 263</p>
<p>16.7 Ethics 264</p>
<p>16.8 Concluding remarks 264</p>
<p>17 Animal models 269<br />Leigh V. Panlilio, Charles W. Schindler and Steven R. Goldberg</p>
<p>17.1 Introduction 269</p>
<p>17.2 Basic principles of behaviour: Reinforcement 269</p>
<p>17.3 Basic principles of behaviour: Effects of environmental cues 270</p>
<p>17.4 Drug self–administration: Simple schedules 270</p>
<p>17.5 Drug self–administration: Using dose effect curves to assess the effects of treatments 271</p>
<p>17.6 Drug self–administration: Measuring the reinforcing effects of drugs 271</p>
<p>17.7 Drug self–administration: Modelling the effects of environmental cues with second–order schedules 273</p>
<p>17.8 Drug self–administration: Reinstatement 275</p>
<p>17.9 Drug self–administration: Modelling the uncontrolled and compulsive nature of addiction 275</p>
<p>17.10 Intracranial drug self–administration and intracranial electrical self–stimulation 276</p>
<p>17.11 Drug self–administration: Advantages and disadvantages 278</p>
<p>17.12 Conditioned place preference 278</p>
<p>17.13 Drug discrimination 279</p>
<p>17.14 Locomotor activity 279</p>
<p>17.15 Adjunct procedures 281</p>
<p>17.16 Integration of behavioural and neuroscience techniques 281</p>
<p>Section V: Specialist Methods</p>
<p>18 Understanding contexts: Methods and analysis in ethnographic research on drugs 287<br />Jeremy Northcote and David Moore</p>
<p>18.1 Introduction 287</p>
<p>18.2 Tracing the history of ethnographic drug research 288</p>
<p>18.3 Designing ethnographic research 289</p>
<p>18.4 Getting started 290</p>
<p>18.5 Collecting data 292</p>
<p>18.6 Analysing ethnographic data 293</p>
<p>18.7 Producing ethnographic texts 294</p>
<p>18.8 Conclusion 295</p>
<p>19 Epidemiology 299<br />Mark Stoov&acute;e and Paul Dietze</p>
<p>19.1 Introduction 299</p>
<p>19.2 Origins of epidemiology 299</p>
<p>19.3 Definitions and uses of epidemiology in alcohol and other drug research 299</p>
<p>19.4 Descriptive epidemiology 300</p>
<p>19.5 Epidemiological research designs 301</p>
<p>19.6 Analysis of case–control and cohort studies 308</p>
<p>19.7 Experimental study designs 310</p>
<p>19.8 Potential sources of error in epidemiology 311</p>
<p>19.9 Summary 314</p>
<p>20 Meta–analysis: Summarising findings on addiction intervention effects 319<br />John W. Finney and Anne Moyer</p>
<p>20.1 Introduction 319</p>
<p>20.2 Overview of meta–analytic methods 319</p>
<p>20.3 Issues in meta–analyses of addiction interventions 327</p>
<p>20.4 Limitations 331</p>
<p>20.5 Conclusion 331</p>
<p>21 Drug trend monitoring 337<br />Paul Griffiths and Jane Mounteney</p>
<p>21.1 Introduction 337</p>
<p>21.2 Point of departure divergent policy perspectives, difficulties in definition and temporal relevance 337</p>
<p>21.3 International, national and local drug monitoring mechanisms 338</p>
<p>21.4 Challenges in monitoring illicit drug use 339</p>
<p>21.5 An overview of common information sources and some of their limitations 341</p>
<p>21.6 Issues for the interpretation and analysis of data 345</p>
<p>21.7 Mixed methods 347</p>
<p>21.8 Triangulation 347</p>
<p>21.9 Reliability and validity 348</p>
<p>21.10 Reflections in a broken mirror: Pragmatic and imperfect solutions to an intractable problem 349</p>
<p>22 Drug policy research 355<br />Jonathan P. Caulkins and Rosalie Liccardo Pacula</p>
<p>22.1 Introduction 355</p>
<p>22.2 Methods for quantitatively comparing an intervention s benefits and costs 356</p>
<p>22.3 Issues that arise in quantifying an intervention s benefits and costs 360</p>
<p>22.4 Methods for estimating an intervention s effects 362</p>
<p>22.5 Modelling methods 365</p>
<p>22.6 Summary 366</p>
<p>Section VI: Beyond Research</p>
<p>23 Concluding remarks 375<br />Peter G. Miller, John Strang and Peter M. Miller</p>
<p>23.1 Publishing addiction science 375</p>
<p>23.2 Final thoughts 376</p>
<p>Index 377</p>