Bioenergy – Principles and Applications

<p>LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xix</p>
<p>PREFACE xxiii</p>
<p>ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxv</p>
<p>ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xxvii</p>
<p>SECTION I BIOENERGY FUNDAMENTALS 1</p>
<p>1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY 3<br />Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li</p>
<p>1.1 Energy 3</p>
<p>1.2 Non–renewable Energy 5</p>
<p>1.3 Renewable Energy 10</p>
<p>1.4 Why Renewable Energy? 11</p>
<p>1.5 Bioenergy 13</p>
<p>References 17</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 18</p>
<p>2 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 19<br />Samir Kumar Khanal</p>
<p>2.1 Introduction 19</p>
<p>2.2 Units of Measurement 19</p>
<p>2.3 Useful Units and Conversions 21</p>
<p>2.4 Energy and Heat 25</p>
<p>2.5 Volume Mass Relationship 29</p>
<p>2.6 Ideal Gas Law 29</p>
<p>2.7 Henry s Law 30</p>
<p>References and Further Reading 32</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 32</p>
<p>3 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES 33<br />Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal</p>
<p>3.1 Introduction 33</p>
<p>3.2 Mass Balances 33</p>
<p>3.3 Enthalpy 35</p>
<p>3.4 Energy Balances 36</p>
<p>References and Further Reading 39</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 39</p>
<p>4 THERMODYNAMICS AND KINETICS OF BASIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS 42<br />Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal</p>
<p>4.1 Introduction 42</p>
<p>4.2 Reaction Thermodynamics 43</p>
<p>4.3 Reaction Kinetics 46</p>
<p>References and Further Reading 48</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 48</p>
<p>5 ORGANIC AND CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY 50<br />Xiaolan Luo and Yebo Li</p>
<p>5.1 Introduction 50</p>
<p>5.2 Structural Formulas and Classification of Organic Compounds 51</p>
<p>5.3 Aliphatic Compounds 52</p>
<p>5.4 Aromatic Compounds 61</p>
<p>5.5 Heterocyclic Compounds 62</p>
<p>5.6 Carbohydrates 63</p>
<p>5.7 Proteins and Lipids 66</p>
<p>References and Further Reading 69</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 70</p>
<p>6 PLANT STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY 71<br />Samir Kumar Khanal Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Rakshit Devappa</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 71</p>
<p>6.2 Carbohydrates and Their Classification 72</p>
<p>6.3 Main Constituents of Plant Biomass 73</p>
<p>6.4 Plant Cell Wall Architecture 80</p>
<p>References 85</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 86</p>
<p>7 MICROBIAL METABOLISMS 88<br />Arul M. Varman Lian He and Yinjie J. Tang</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 88</p>
<p>7.2 Carbon Metabolisms 89</p>
<p>7.3 Metabolic Models 93</p>
<p>References 104</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 105</p>
<p>Appendix 7.1 Code Useful for Example 7.2 105</p>
<p>SECTION II BIOENERGY FEEDSTOCKS 107</p>
<p>8 STARCH–BASED FEEDSTOCKS 109<br />Xumeng Ge and Yebo Li</p>
<p>8.1 Introduction 109</p>
<p>8.2 Corn 110</p>
<p>8.3 Sweet Potato 116</p>
<p>8.4 Cassava 120</p>
<p>8.5 Comparison of Composition Yield and Energy Potential of Corn Sweet Potato and Cassava 124</p>
<p>References 125</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 126</p>
<p>9 OILSEED–BASED FEEDSTOCKS 127<br />Chengci Chen and Marisol Berti</p>
<p>9.1 Introduction 127</p>
<p>9.2 Soybean 128</p>
<p>9.3 Rapeseed and Canola 132</p>
<p>9.4 Oil Palm 135</p>
<p>9.5 Jatropha 136</p>
<p>9.6 Camelina 138</p>
<p>9.7 Yield and Oil Content of Major Oilseed Feedstocks 139</p>
<p>References 140</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 142</p>
<p>10 LIGNOCELLULOSE–BASED FEEDSTOCKS 143<br />Sudhagar Mani</p>
<p>10.1 Introduction 143</p>
<p>10.2 Feedstock Availability and Production 144</p>
<p>10.3 Feedstock Logistics 151</p>
<p>References 167</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 168</p>
<p>11 ALGAE–BASED FEEDSTOCKS 170<br />Xumeng Ge Johnathon P. Sheets Yebo Li and Sudhagar Mani</p>
<p>11.1 Introduction 170</p>
<p>11.2 Algae Classification Cell Structure and Characteristics 171</p>
<p>11.3 Mechanism of Algal Growth 172</p>
<p>11.4 Algal Growth Conditions 174</p>
<p>11.5 Steps in Algal–Biodiesel Production 176</p>
<p>References 195</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 196</p>
<p>SECTION III BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 199</p>
<p>12 PRETREATMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCKS 201<br />Chang Geun Yoo and Xuejun Pan</p>
<p>12.1 Introduction 201</p>
<p>12.2 What Does Pretreatment Do? 202</p>
<p>12.3 Physical Pretreatment 205</p>
<p>12.4 Thermochemical Pretreatment 207</p>
<p>12.5 Other Pretreatments 216</p>
<p>12.6 Co–products from Lignocellulosic Feedstock Pretreatment 219</p>
<p>References 220</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 221</p>
<p>13 ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS 224<br />David Hodge and Wei Liao</p>
<p>13.1 Introduction 224</p>
<p>13.2 Nomenclature and Classification of Hydrolases 225</p>
<p>13.3 Enzyme Kinetics 226</p>
<p>13.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates 240</p>
<p>References 246</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 247</p>
<p>14 ETHANOL FERMENTATION 250<br />Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Samir Kumar Khanal</p>
<p>14.1 Introduction 250</p>
<p>14.2 Biochemical Pathway 252</p>
<p>14.3 Byproducts Formation during Ethanol Fermentation 263</p>
<p>14.4 Microbial Cultures 264</p>
<p>14.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Ethanol Fermentation 267</p>
<p>14.6 Industrial Fuel–Grade Ethanol Production 268</p>
<p>References 274</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 275</p>
<p>15 BUTANOL FERMENTATION 277<br />Victor Ujor and Thaddeus Chukwuemeka Ezeji</p>
<p>15.1 Introduction 277</p>
<p>15.2 Butanol Fermentation 279</p>
<p>15.3 Factors Affecting Butanol Fermentation 285</p>
<p>15.4 Substrates for Butanol Fermentation 287</p>
<p>15.5 Advanced Butanol Fermentation Techniques and Downstream Processing 288</p>
<p>References 292</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 294</p>
<p>16 SYNGAS FERMENTATION 296<br />Mark R. Wilkins Hasan K. Atiyeh and Samir Kumar Khanal</p>
<p>16.1 Introduction 296</p>
<p>16.2 Stoichiometry 297</p>
<p>16.3 Syngas–Fermenting Bacteria 298</p>
<p>16.4 Factors Affecting Syngas Fermentation 303</p>
<p>16.5 Product Recovery 308</p>
<p>References 309</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 311</p>
<p>17 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 313<br />Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li</p>
<p>17.1 Introduction 313</p>
<p>17.2 Organic Conversion in an Anaerobic Process 315</p>
<p>17.3 Stoichiometry of Methane Production 320</p>
<p>17.4 Important Considerations in Anaerobic Digestion 323</p>
<p>17.5 Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1) 331</p>
<p>References 334</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 336</p>
<p>18 BIOGAS PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS 338<br />Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li</p>
<p>18.1 Introduction 338</p>
<p>18.2 Anaerobic Digestion Systems 338</p>
<p>18.3 Biogas Cleaning and Upgrading 354</p>
<p>18.4 Biogas Utilization 357</p>
<p>18.5 Digestate 358</p>
<p>References 358</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 359</p>
<p>19 MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS 361<br />Hongjian Lin Hong Liu Jun Zhu and Venkataramana Gadhamshetty</p>
<p>19.1 Introduction 361</p>
<p>19.2 How Does a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Work? 363</p>
<p>19.3 Electron Transfer Processes 365</p>
<p>19.4 Electrical Power and Energy Generation 370</p>
<p>19.5 Design and Operation of an MFC 377</p>
<p>References 381</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 382</p>
<p>SECTION IV THERMAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 385</p>
<p>20 COMBUSTION FOR HEAT AND POWER 387<br />Sushil Adhikari Avanti Kulkarni and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine</p>
<p>20.1 Introduction 387</p>
<p>20.2 Fundamentals of Biomass Combustion 389</p>
<p>20.3 Biomass Properties and Preprocessing 393</p>
<p>20.4 Biomass Furnaces 395</p>
<p>20.5 Power Generation 397</p>
<p>20.6 Biomass Co–firing with Coal 402</p>
<p>20.7 Environmental Impact and Emissions of Biomass Combustion 404</p>
<p>References 405</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 405</p>
<p>21 GASIFICATION 407<br />Sushil Adhikari and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine</p>
<p>21.1 Introduction 407</p>
<p>21.2 Fundamentals of Gasification 408</p>
<p>21.3 Gasifiers 410</p>
<p>21.4 Feedstock Preparation and Characterization 414</p>
<p>21.5 Gasification Mass and Energy Balance 416</p>
<p>21.6 Gas Cleanup 419</p>
<p>21.7 Applications of Biomass Gasification 419</p>
<p>References 421</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 421</p>
<p>Appendix 422</p>
<p>22 PYROLYSIS 423<br />Manuel Garcia–Perez</p>
<p>22.1 Introduction 423</p>
<p>22.2 Slow vs. Fast Pyrolysis 425</p>
<p>22.3 Pyrolysis Reactions and Mechanisms 426</p>
<p>22.4 Single–Particle Models 431</p>
<p>22.5 Bio–Oil 432</p>
<p>22.6 Charcoal 434</p>
<p>22.7 Bio–oil Refining 434</p>
<p>References 437</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 438</p>
<p>SECTION V BIOBASED REFINERY 439</p>
<p>23 SUGAR–BASED BIOREFINERY 441<br />Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana</p>
<p>23.1 Introduction 441</p>
<p>23.2 Stoichiometry 442</p>
<p>23.3 Sugarcane Ethanol 443</p>
<p>23.4 Sweet Sorghum Ethanol 446</p>
<p>23.5 Sugar Beet Ethanol 447</p>
<p>23.6 Biochemicals and Biopolymers 448</p>
<p>References 450</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 451</p>
<p>24 STARCH–BASED BIOREFINERY 453<br />Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana</p>
<p>24.1 Introduction 453</p>
<p>24.2 Stoichiometry of Starch to Ethanol 455</p>
<p>24.3 Integrated Farm–Scale Biorefinery 464</p>
<p>References 465</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 466</p>
<p>25 LIGNOCELLULOSE–BASED BIOREFINERY 467<br />Scott C. Geleynse Michael Paice and Xiao Zhang</p>
<p>25.1 Introduction 467</p>
<p>25.2 Cell Structure of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 468</p>
<p>25.3 Stoichiometry and Energy Content 468</p>
<p>25.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion to Fuel 472</p>
<p>25.5 Co–Products from Lignocellulose–Based Biorefinery 473</p>
<p>25.6 Industrial Lignocellulose–Based Biorefinery 476</p>
<p>References 478</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 480</p>
<p>26 LIPID–BASED BIOREFINERY 481<br />B. Brian He J. H. Van Gerpen Matthew J. Morra and Armando G. McDonald</p>
<p>26.1 Introduction 481</p>
<p>26.2 Lipid–Based Feedstocks 483</p>
<p>26.3 Chemical Properties of Lipids 484</p>
<p>26.4 Biodiesel from Lipids 491</p>
<p>26.5 Lipid–Based Biorefinery 498</p>
<p>References 501</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 502</p>
<p>SECTION VI BIOENERGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS 505</p>
<p>27 TECHNO–ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT 507<br />Ganti S. Murthy</p>
<p>27.1 Introduction 507</p>
<p>27.2 What Is Techno–Economic Analysis? 508</p>
<p>27.3 Basic Steps in TEA 509</p>
<p>27.4 Tools Software and Data Sources for Performing TEA 517</p>
<p>References 518</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 518</p>
<p>28 LIFE–CYCLE ASSESSMENT 521<br />Ganti S. Murthy</p>
<p>28.1 Introduction 521</p>
<p>28.2 What Is Life–Cycle Assessment (LCA)? 522</p>
<p>28.3 Procedure for LCA 524</p>
<p>28.4 Tools Available to Perform LCA 533</p>
<p>28.5 Advanced Topics 533</p>
<p>References 539</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 541</p>
<p>29 GOVERNMENT POLICY AND STANDARDS FOR BIOENERGY 544<br />Sami Kumar Khanal Gal Hochman Ajay Shah and Jeffrey M. Bielicki</p>
<p>29.1 Overview of the Bioenergy Market 544</p>
<p>29.2 Rationale for Government Intervention 546</p>
<p>29.3 Government Intervention through Policy Tools 550</p>
<p>29.4 Biofuels Policy Implementations: Existing Policy Instruments 550</p>
<p>29.5 Implications of Biofuels Policies 559</p>
<p>References 561</p>
<p>Exercise Problems 561</p>
<p>INDEX 563</p>