Reading, Writing, and Learning in ESL

<p><strong>Brief Table of Contents</strong></p> <p>1 English Learners in 21st-Century Classrooms</p> <p>2 Language and Language Acquisition</p> <p>3 Classroom Practices for Effective English Learner Instruction</p> <p>4 The New Literacies and English Learners</p> <p>5 Oral English Development in Second Language Acquisition</p> <p>6 First Steps to Literacy: English Learners Beginning to Write and Read</p> <p>7 Words and Meanings: English Learners' Vocabulary Development</p> <p>8 English Learners and Process Writing</p> <p>9 Reading and Literature Instruction for English Learners</p> <p>10 Content Reading and Writing: Prereading and During Reading</p> <p>11 Content Reading and Writing: Postreading Strategies for Organizing and Remembering</p> <p><strong>Detailed Table of Contents</strong></p> <p>Preface xviii</p> <p><strong>1 English Learners in 21st-Century Classrooms 2</strong></p> <p>Who Are English Learners and How Can I Get to Know Them? 5</p> <p>Learning about Your Students' Languages and Cultures 7</p> <p>Getting Basic Information When a New Student Arrives 7</p> <p>Classroom Activities That Help You Get to Know Your Students 9</p> <p>How Do Cultural Differences Affect Teaching and Learning? 11</p> <p>Definitions of Culture 12</p> <p>Who Am I in the Lives of My Students? 12</p> <p>Becoming an Effective Participant—Observer in Your Own Classroom 13</p> <p>Sociocultural Factors Affecting Language Use in the Classroom 16</p> <p>Culturally Related Responses to Classroom Organization 18</p> <p>Literacy Traditions from Home and Community 19</p> <p>How Can I Ease New Students into the Routines of My Classroom? 20</p> <p>First Things First: Safety and Security 21</p> <p>Creating a Sense of Belonging 21</p> <p>How Do Current Policy Trends Affect English Learner Education? 22</p> <p>Academic Standards and Assessment 23</p> <p>Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 23</p> <p>English Language Development Standards and Assessment 25</p> <p>Curriculum Standards, High-Stakes Testing, and “No Child Left Behind” 26</p> <p>Socioeconomic Status: Predictor of Standardized Test Scores 27</p> <p>Education Policy Specific to English Learners 28</p> <p>Newer Technologies: Purposes, Policies, and Assessments 31</p> <p>What Kinds of Programs Exist to Meet the Needs of English Learners? 32</p> <p>English Learner Program Models 33</p> <p>Research on Bilingual and ESL Programs Serving English Learners 35</p> <p>Summary 37</p> <p>Internet Resources 38</p> <p>Activities 39</p> <p><strong>2 Language and Language Acquisition 40</strong></p> <p>How Have Language Proficiency and Communicative Competence Been Defined? 42</p> <p>Language Use in Social Context: A Classroom Conversation 43</p> <p>Bilingual Communicative Competence 46</p> <p>Figurative Language 47</p> <p>What Is Academic Language? 48</p> <p>Contrasting Social and Academic Language 49</p> <p>Academic Language Qualities 49</p> <p>Academic Language Functions 50</p> <p>Academic Language Linguistic Features 51</p> <p>The Role of Background Knowledge in Academic Language Use 53</p> <p>How Does Language Relate to Power, Social Standing, and Identity? 54</p> <p>Language as an Instrument and Symbol of Power 55</p> <p>Language or Dialect? 55</p> <p>How a Dialect Becomes the “Standard” Language 56</p> <p>How Language Variety Affects the Power and Prestige of Its Users 57</p> <p>The Role of a Standard Language 58</p> <p>Misuse of the Term Dialect 59</p> <p>What Theories Have Been Proposed to Explain Language Acquisition? 60</p> <p>First Language Acquisition Theories 60</p> <p>Behaviorist Theory 60</p> <p>Innatist Theory 61</p> <p>Interactionist Theory 62</p> <p>Summary of First Language Acquisition Theories 63</p> <p>Second Language Acquisition Theories 64</p> <p>Behaviorist Perspective 65</p> <p>Innatist Perspective 65</p> <p>Krashen's Five Hypotheses 66</p> <p>Interactionist Perspective 68</p> <p>Summary of Second Language Acquisition Theories 69</p> <p>What Are Some Traits and Sequences in English Language Acquisition? 70</p> <p>Interlanguage and Fossilization 70</p> <p>Developmental Sequences in English Language Acquisition 71</p> <p>What Factors Influence Second Language Development in School? 73</p> <p>Social Context of the Language Learning Environment 73</p> <p>Primary Language Development 75</p> <p>Age and the Interplay of Sociocultural and Psychological Factors 77</p> <p>Sociocultural Factors 77</p> <p>Personality Factors 78</p> <p>Cognitive Factors 78</p> <p>Teacher Expectations and Learner Errors 79</p> <p>Summary 81</p> <p>Internet Resources 82</p> <p>Activities 82</p> <p><strong>3 Classroom Practices for Effective English Learner Instruction 84</strong></p> <p>How Do Curriculum Standards Serve English Learners? 88</p> <p>How Is Instruction Differentiated to Meet the Varied Needs of English Learners? 90</p> <p>How Is Sheltered Instruction (SDAIE) Planned and Implemented? 92</p> <p>A Science Example with Fourth-Graders 93</p> <p>A Literature Example with Kindergartners 95</p> <p>A Social Science Example with High School Students 96</p> <p>Planning for Differentiated, Sheltered English Instruction/SDAIE 99</p> <p>Response to Intervention (RTI) 102</p> <p>How Does Group Work Facilitate Content and Language Learning? 104</p> <p>Collaborative Groups 104</p> <p>Cooperative Learning Methods 106</p> <p>Phases of Cooperative Group Development 107</p> <p>Jigsaw 108</p> <p>How Does Thematic Instruction Promote Content and Language Learning? 109</p> <p>Organizing Thematic Instruction 110</p> <p>Meaning and Purpose 110</p> <p>Building on Prior Knowledge 110</p> <p>Integrated Opportunities to Use Oral and Written Language for Learning Purposes 111</p> <p>Scaffolding for Support 111</p> <p>Collaboration 111</p> <p>Variety 111</p> <p>Functional and Academic Literacy Uses in Thematic Instruction 113</p> <p>Creating Variety in Language and Literacy Uses 114</p> <p>Scaffolding 116</p> <p>Routines as Scaffolds 116</p> <p>Literacy Scaffolds for English Learners 117</p> <p>How Are English Learners Assessed? 119</p> <p>Definition and Purposes of English Learner Assessment 119</p> <p>Basic Concepts and Terms Used in Assessment 119</p> <p>Identification and Placement of Students Needing Language Education Support Services 121</p> <p>Re-Designation to Fully English Proficient 122</p> <p>Limitations of Standardized Language Proficiency Tests 122</p> <p>Program Evaluation 123</p> <p>Principles of Classroom-Based Assessment 124</p> <p>Keeping Cultural Considerations in Mind 125</p> <p>Planning Systematic, Classroom-Based Assessment 125</p> <p>Summary 126</p> <p>Internet Resources 127</p> <p>Activities 128</p> <p><strong>4 The New Literacies and English Learners 130</strong></p> <p>What Are the New Literacies for 21st-Century Technologies? 134</p> <p>How Can We Help Students Use the Internet Effectively and Safely? 137</p> <p>Comparing Online Reading and Traditional Reading 137</p> <p>The Importance of Safe, Responsible, and Ethical Internet Use 139</p> <p>Helping Students Evaluate Websites: Bias, Reliability, and Accuracy 139</p> <p>How Can Teachers Use Technology to Differentiate Instruction for English Learners? 140</p> <p>How May Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 Be Used for Academic Learning? 143</p> <p>Using Web 1.0 for Classroom Learning 143</p> <p>Scavenger Hunts 144</p> <p>WebQuests 144</p> <p>Individual and Group Research Projects 144</p> <p>Using Web 2.0 for Classroom Learning 145</p> <p>Blogs 146</p> <p>Classroom Uses of Blogs 146</p> <p>Wikis 148</p> <p>Classroom Uses of Wikis 149</p> <p>Podcasts and Videos 151</p> <p>Classroom Uses of Podcasts and Videos 151</p> <p>Social Networking 153</p> <p>Classroom Sites Where You Can Restrict Access 153</p> <p>Why and How You Might Use Social Networking in the Classroom 154</p> <p>Teacher Networking Sites 155</p> <p>What Are Some Additional Tools and Resources for Teachers? 155</p> <p>RSS: Keeping Track of New Information on Your Favorite Sites 155</p> <p>A Glimpse of the Future 156</p> <p>Summary 157</p> <p>Internet Resources 157</p> <p>Activities 158</p> <p><strong>5 Oral English Development in Second Language Acquisition 160</strong></p> <p>Why Is an Integrated Approach to English Language Arts Important? 162</p> <p>Functional Integration of Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing 162</p> <p>Developmental Relationships among Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing 163</p> <p>Oral Language in Perspective 165</p> <p>Form, Function, and Social Context in Oral Language Use 166</p> <p>What Traits Describe the Oral Proficiency of Beginning and Intermediate English Learners? 168</p> <p>Second Language Oral Proficiency of Beginning English Learners 168</p> <p>Second Language Oral Proficiency of Intermediate English Learners 170</p> <p>What Are Some Strategies That Promote Oral Language Development? 172</p> <p>Using Games for English Language Development 173</p> <p>Podcasts to Enhance English Learning in Your Classroom 174</p> <p>Songs 174</p> <p>Drama 174</p> <p>Dramatizing Poetry 175</p> <p>Show and Tell 175</p> <p>One Looks, One Doesn't 176</p> <p>Recording Students' Re-Creations of Wordless Book Stories 177</p> <p>Recording and Dubbing a Television Show 178</p> <p>Choral Reading 178</p> <p>Riddles and Jokes 179</p> <p>What Are Some Academic Language Features of Oral Instruction in Math, Science, and Social Studies? 179</p> <p>Academic Language Features of Mathematics 180</p> <p>Academic Language Features of Science 181</p> <p>Academic Language Features of Social Studies 182</p> <p>Facilitating Oral Language Development during Academic Instruction 183</p> <p>Teacher Talk during Academic Instruction 183</p> <p>Scaffolding Student Use of Oral Language for Academic Purposes 183</p> <p>How May We Assess English Learners' Oral Language Competence? 185</p> <p>The Student Oral Language Observation Matrix 185</p> <p>Example of a SOLOM Observation and Scoring 187</p> <p>Instructional Implications Based on Solom Scoring 190</p> <p>Checklists and Anecdotal Observations 190</p> <p>How May Content Instruction Be Differentiated to Promote Oral Language Development? 193</p> <p>Summary 196</p> <p>Internet Resources 196</p> <p>Activities 197</p> <p><strong>6 First Steps to Literacy: English Learners Beginning to Write and Read 198</strong></p> <p>What Does Research Tell Us about Early Literacy Development? 202</p> <p>Historical Overview of Early Literacy Instruction 204</p> <p>Reading Readiness Perspective 204</p> <p>Emergent Literacy Perspective 205</p> <p>Balanced Comprehensive Literacy Perspective 206</p> <p>Early Literacy Development in English as a Non-Native Language 207</p> <p>Whole-Part-Whole Cycle for English Learners of All Ages 207</p> <p>Special Needs of Older, Preliterate Learners 208</p> <p>New Literacies and English Language Learners 210</p> <p>Which Print Functions and Forms Are Acquired during Early Literacy Development? 210</p> <p>Highlighting Literacy Functions in Your Classroom 211</p> <p>Print Concepts Children Develop in the Emergent Literacy Phase 211</p> <p>Exploring the Visual Form of Written Language 214</p> <p>Alphabetic Writing Systems: Connecting Sounds and Symbols 215</p> <p>Invented Spelling: Working Out Sound/Symbol Correspondences 217</p> <p>How May Family and Community Nurture Early Literacy Development? 219</p> <p>Family Practices That Promote Literacy Development 220</p> <p>Family Literacy Programs 222</p> <p>Promoting Parent Involvement in English Learners' Schooling 224</p> <p>Making Parent Involvement a School-Wide Goal 224</p> <p>Taking School Activities Home 224</p> <p>Which Classroom Strategies Promote Early Literacy Development? 225</p> <p>Early Literacy Goals 225</p> <p>Creating a Literacy-Rich Classroom Environment 226</p> <p>Books, Books, Books! 226</p> <p>Using Daily Routines to Highlight the Forms and Functions of Print 229</p> <p>Morning Message 229</p> <p>Classroom Rules and Procedures 229</p> <p>Wall Dictionary 229</p> <p>Reading Aloud to Students 230</p> <p>Shared Writing and Reading Using the Language Experience Approach 232</p> <p>Dialogue Journals 233</p> <p>Helping Students Recognize and Spell Words Independently 233</p> <p>Using Big Books to Teach Sight Words and Phonics 233</p> <p>Strategies to Increase Students' Sight Word Vocabulary 234</p> <p>Phonics 235</p> <p>Word Families 236</p> <p>Invented Spelling and Word Recognition 238</p> <p>Developmental Levels in Student Spelling 238</p> <p>Summary of Early Literacy Instructional Strategies 242</p> <p>How May English Learners' Early Literacy Development Be Assessed? 243</p> <p>How May Early Literacy Instruction Be Differentiated for English Learners? 244</p> <p>Summary 247</p> <p>Internet Resources 247</p> <p>Activities 248</p> <p><strong>7 Words and Meanings: English Learners' Vocabulary Development 250</strong></p> <p>What Does Research Show about English Learners' Vocabulary Development? 252</p> <p>What Kinds of Words Do Students Need to Know? 256</p> <p>How Do Students Learn New Words? 258</p> <p>How Do We Differentiate Vocabulary Assessment and Instruction? 263</p> <p>English Language Proficiency Considerations 263</p> <p>Primary Language Proficiency Considerations 264</p> <p>Vocabulary Assessment Prior to Instruction 265</p> <p>Planning Differentiated Vocabulary Instruction 266</p> <p>Fifth-Grade Science Lesson: Differentiated Instruction 266</p> <p>Dictionaries as a Resource for Differentiating Instruction 267</p> <p>Picture Dictionaries 268</p> <p>Bilingual Dictionaries 269</p> <p>Monolingual Language Learner Dictionaries 269</p> <p>What Are Some Beginning and Intermediate English Learner Characteristics and Teaching Strategies? 269</p> <p>Beginning English Learner Characteristics and Teaching Strategies 270</p> <p>Total Physical Response (TPR) 270</p> <p>Web Tools for Learning Vocabulary 271</p> <p>Read-Alouds 272</p> <p>Word Cards 272</p> <p>Word Wall Dictionary 272</p> <p>Working with Idioms 273</p> <p>Intermediate English Learner Characteristics and</p> <p>Teaching Strategies 274</p> <p>Word Wheels 274</p> <p>Language Wheels for Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, and Cognates 274</p> <p>Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy 275</p> <p>Word Wizard 275</p> <p>Contextual Redefinition 276</p> <p>List—Group—Label—Map for Elementary and Secondary Students 277</p> <p>List 277</p> <p>Group 277</p> <p>Label 277</p> <p>Vocabulary Journals 278</p> <p>Teaching Students How to Use Dictionaries Effectively 278</p> <p>Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes 279</p> <p>Word Learning Strategies Older Students Found Useful 281</p> <p>How Do We Assess ELs' Vocabulary Progress? 282</p> <p>Summary 282</p> <p>Internet Resources 283</p> <p>Activities 284</p> <p><strong>8 English Learners and Process Writing 286</strong></p> <p>What Does Research Tell Us about Writing in a Second Language? 289</p> <p>What Is Process Writing and How Does It Benefit English Learners? 290</p> <p>Students' Responses to “I Remember” 293</p> <p>How Does Process Writing Benefit English Learners? 295</p> <p>What Are the Six Traits of Good Writing and How Can They Help English Learners? 295</p> <p>Using Webtools with Process Writing: Blogs and Wikis 299</p> <p>What Are Some Collaborative Contexts for Process Writing? 299</p> <p>Peer Response Groups 300</p> <p>A Sixth-Grade Class Works in Response Groups 303</p> <p>Peer Editing Groups 304</p> <p>Publishing Student Writing 305</p> <p>What Are Some Beginning and Intermediate English Learner Characteristics and Teaching Strategies? 306</p> <p>Description of Beginning Writers 307</p> <p>Strategies to Assist Beginning Writers 308</p> <p>Oral Discussion and Brainstorming Ideas 309</p> <p>Partner Stories Using Pictures and Wordless Books 309</p> <p>Concept Books: Creating a Teaching Library 310</p> <p>Peek-a-Boo Books for Younger Students and Riddle Books for Older Students 310</p> <p>Pattern Poems for Elementary and Secondary School Students 311</p> <p>From Personal Journals to Dialogue Journals to Buddy Journals 311</p> <p>Improvisational Sign Language 314</p> <p>Life Murals 315</p> <p>Clustering 315</p> <p>Freewriting 316</p> <p>Description of Intermediate Writers 317</p> <p>Strategies for Intermediate Writers 319</p> <p>Show and Not Tell 319</p> <p>Sentence Combining 320</p> <p>Sentence Shortening 321</p> <p>Sentence Models 322</p> <p>Student Examples of the Model 323</p> <p>Voice 323</p> <p>Mapping 324</p> <p>How Can We Assess English Learners' Writing Progress and Differentiate Instruction? 327</p> <p>Portfolio Assessment 328</p> <p>Balancing Goals: Fluency, Form, and Correctness 330</p> <p>Balancing Instruction: Scaffolds, Models, and Direct Instruction 331</p> <p>Helping Students Deal with Errors in Their Writing 331</p> <p>Example of a Differentiated Lesson Plan for English Learners 333</p> <p>Summary 335</p> <p>Internet Resources 336</p> <p>Activities 336</p> <p><strong>9 Reading and Literature Instruction for English Learners 338</strong></p> <p>What Does Research Tell Us about Reading in a Second Language? 341</p> <p>Second Language Readers 342</p> <p>What Role Does Background Knowledge Play in English Learners'</p> <p>Reading Comprehension? 342</p> <p>Reading Processes of Proficient Readers 343</p> <p>What Is Metacognition? “Thinking about Thinking” 344</p> <p>What Role Does Text Structure Play in Reading Comprehension? 344</p> <p>Why Is Internet Reading Thought of as a New Literacy? 345</p> <p>How Do Guided Reading, Literature Study, and Independent Reading</p> <p>Promote Literacy? 346</p> <p>Guided Reading 347</p> <p>Literature Study: Response Groups 348</p> <p>Steps That Prepare Students to Work in Response Groups 350</p> <p>How Literature Response Benefits English Learners 351</p> <p>How Can We Encourage Independent Reading? 351</p> <p>Approaches to Independent Reading 351</p> <p>Helping Students Choose Books of Appropriate Difficulty 354</p> <p>What Are the Characteristics and Strategies for Beginning and Intermediate Second Language Readers? 356</p> <p>Beginning Second Language Readers: Characteristics and Strategies 356</p> <p>Language-Experience Approach 356</p> <p>Providing Quality Literature for Beginners 359</p> <p>Pattern Books 360</p> <p>Illustrating Stories and Poems 362</p> <p>Shared Reading with Big Books 362</p> <p>Directed Listening-Thinking Activity 363</p> <p>Readers' Theater 365</p> <p>Story Mapping 366</p> <p>Intermediate Second Language Readers: Characteristics and Strategies 367</p> <p>Cognitive Mapping 368</p> <p>Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 369</p> <p>Literature Response Journals 372</p> <p>Developing Scripts for Readers' Theater 374</p> <p>Adapting Stories into Plays and Skits for Live or Video presentations 374</p> <p>How Do We Assess Second Language Readers' Progress? 375</p> <p>Assessing with Materials Students Bring to Class 376</p> <p>Informal Assessment 377</p> <p>Miscue Analysis 377</p> <p>Miscue Procedure 377</p> <p>Interpreting Miscues 379</p> <p>Informal Reading Inventories 384</p> <p>Determining Independent, Instructional, and Frustration Reading Levels 384</p> <p>Independent Reading Level 384</p> <p>Instructional Reading Level 385</p> <p>Frustration Reading Level 385</p> <p>Running Records 385</p> <p>Procedures for Running Records 386</p> <p>Strengths of Running Records 386</p> <p>Other Reading Assessment Resources 387</p> <p>Portfolio Assessment 387</p> <p>Student Self-Assessment 389</p> <p>How Do We Differentiate Reading and Literature Instruction? 389</p> <p>Summary 392</p> <p>Internet Resources 393</p> <p>Activities 394</p> <p><strong>10 Content Reading and Writing: Prereading and During Reading 396</strong></p> <p>What Does Research Tell Us about Content Area Reading and Writing for English Learners? 401</p> <p>Looking Closely at the Reading Process of Mature Readers 402</p> <p>Resources That English Learners Bring to Reading in English 405</p> <p>How Do Readers Interact with Longer, More Complex Texts? 408</p> <p>Aesthetic and Efferent Interactions with Texts 408</p> <p>Effects of Text Structure on Comprehension and Memory 409</p> <p>Cohesive Ties/Signal Words 412</p> <p>Headings and Subheadings 413</p> <p>Teaching Text Structure: A Classroom Example 413</p> <p>Literary Structure 414</p> <p>Discussion of Story Elements 415</p> <p>Metacognition and Learning from Text 415</p> <p>How Can We Match Students with Texts for Optimal Learning? 416</p> <p>Evaluating Students' Interaction with Text Using the Group Reading Inventory 416</p> <p>Evaluating Your Own Interaction with One Text 418</p> <p>Which Strategies Promote Reading Comprehension? 420</p> <p>Prereading Strategies: Developing Motivation, Purpose, and Background Knowledge 421</p> <p>Teacher Talk: Making Purposes Clear 421</p> <p>Field Trips and Films 422</p> <p>Simulation Games 422</p> <p>Using Newer Technologies to Enhance Comprehension 423</p> <p>Experiments 423</p> <p>Developing Vocabulary before Students Read a Text 423</p> <p>Structured Overviews 424</p> <p>Preview Guides 424</p> <p>Anticipation Guides 425</p> <p>During Reading Strategies: Monitoring Comprehension 427</p> <p>Using Headings and Subheadings 427</p> <p>Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA) 428</p> <p>Guided Reading 429</p> <p>ReQuest Procedure 430</p> <p>Vocabulary Strategies during Reading 431</p> <p>Using Clustering to Develop Vocabulary in Context 431</p> <p>Jigsaw Procedure 433</p> <p>Learning Logs 433</p> <p>How Can We Assess Students and Differentiate Instruction for Content Reading? 434</p> <p>Summary 436</p> <p>Internet Resources 436</p> <p>Activities 437</p> <p><strong>11 Content Reading and Writing: Postreading Strategies for Organizing and Remembering 438</strong></p> <p>Which Postreading Strategies Are Effective with English Learners and Why? 441</p> <p>Semantic Feature Analysis for Vocabulary Development after Reading 441</p> <p>Strategies to Organize and Remember Information 442</p> <p>Rehearsing 443</p> <p>Venn Diagrams 443</p> <p>Mapping 444</p> <p>Reciprocal Teaching 445</p> <p>Summarizing and Rehearsing Information with Mapping 446</p> <p>How Can Writing Be Used as a Learning Tool across the Curriculum? 447</p> <p>Journals and Learning Logs 447</p> <p>Developing Teacher- and Student-Generated Topics in Content Areas 447</p> <p>Photo Essays: Combining Direct Experience, the Visual Mode, and Writing 450</p> <p>Written and Oral Collaborative Research Projects 452</p> <p>K-W-L, a Strategy That Fosters Thinking before, during, and after Reading 454</p> <p>How Do Theme Studies Provide a Meaningful Learning Context for English Learners? 455</p> <p>Introducing the Topic and Choosing Study Questions 455</p> <p>Organizing Instruction 458</p> <p>Instructional Modifications for English Learners 460</p> <p>How Can Content Learning Be Assessed? 462</p> <p>Portfolio Assessment 462</p> <p>Selecting Materials for the Portfolio 462</p>