The Governance of ROME

One: The Republic.- I: The Origins: The Period of the Mythological Kings.- 1. The Etruscans and Rome.- 2. The Period of the Mythological Kings.- a. The Sociopolitical Structure.- aa. The Patrician gentes.- bb. The curiae.- cc. The Centuriate Division.- dd. The Plebs.- b. The King.- c. The Senate.- d. The Curiate Comitia.- II: The Class Struggle and the Merger between the Patricians and the Plebeians.- 1. The Foundation of the Roman Republic.- 2. Patricians and Plebeians: The Dual State.- 3. The Legislation of the Twelve Tables.- 4. The Constitutional Implications of the Valerian-Horatian Legislation.- 5. The Final Liquidation of the Patrician-Plebeian Conflict.- a. The Equalization of Access to Office.- b. The Equalization of the Legislative Authority of the Assemblies.- 6. The New Class Stratification.- a. The Patrician-Plebeian Nobility.- b. The Equestrian Order.- aa. The Fate of the Small Citizen Farmer.- bb. The New Plutocracy.- cc. Capitalism and the Senatorial Class.- c. The Relations Between the Two Orders.- III: The Political Institutions of the Republic I: The Magistrates.- A. General Observations.- 1. General Principles of the Republican Organization.- a. Sovereignty and State Organs.- b. Interdependence of the State Organs.- c. The Authority of Office: Legitimation by Election.- d. The Powers of Office: imperium and potestas.- aa. The imperium.- ? Military Command.- ?. The Lictors.- ?. The Auspices.- bb. The potestas.- 2. Principles of Office Organization.- a. Collegiality and Intercession.- b. The Nonexistence of the Separation of Powers.- c. Qualifications for Office.- d. Eligibility, Terms, and Sequence of Access to Office.- aa. Eligibility: The Sociological Aspect.- bb. Terms of Office.- cc. Reeligibility.- dd. Access to Office: The cursus honorum.- e. Office Responsibility.- B. The Individual Magistracies.- 1. The Consuls.- 2. The Praetors.- 3. The Quaestors.- 4. The Aediles.- 5. The Censors.- a. Census-taking and Registration.- b. Financial Assignments.- c. Supervision of Morals.- 6. The Plebeian Magistrates.- a. The Tribunes of the People.- aa. The Origins: ius auxilii for Plebeians.- bb. The Tribune as a Regular State Organ.- cc. The Tribunate in the Service of the Senatorial Oligarchy.- dd. The Decline of the Institution.- b. The Plebeian Aediles.- 7. The Administrative Personnel of the Magistracies.- 8. The Dictator.- a. An Extraordinary Magistracy.- b. Appointment and Investiture.- c. Role of the Senate.- d. Powers and Functions.- e. Constitutional Limitations.- f. Purposes and Objectives.- g. The magister equitum.- h. Evaluation.- 9. Neo-dictatorship.- a. Lucius Cornelius Sulla.- b. Gaius Julius Caesar.- 10. The Abolition of the Office of Dictatorship.- 11. Pro-Magistrates.- a. The Incumbency of Former Magistrates.- b. Private Persons as Promagistrates.- IV: The Political Institutions of the Republic II: The Popular Assemblies.- 1. Citizenship.- a. General Requisites.- b. Citizenship for non-Romans and the Social War.- 2. The Size of the Population of the City of Rome.- 3. The Curiate Assembly.- 4. The Centuriate Assembly.- a. Composition and Structure Under the Organization of Servius Tullius.- aa. Military Character.- bb. Property Evaluation.- b. The Reform of the Third Century.- c. Manipulation of the Voting Technique: The Weighted Vote.- 5. The Tribute Assembly.- a. Origins: The concilium plebis.- b. The Thirty-five Tribes.- c. Legislative Jurisdiction.- d. Political Implication of the Tribute Division.- 6. The Popular Assemblies in Operation.- a. Preparing and Convening the Meetings: contiones and comitia.- b. Locations of the Meetings.- c. The Presiding Officer.- d. The Voting Procedure in General.- e. Legislative Procedure.- f Procedure for Elections.- aa. The Election Schedule.- bb. The Candidates and the Election Campaign.- 1. The Candidates.- 2. The Campaign.- g. Money in Politics.- h. Frequency of Assembly Meetings.- i. Attendance of the Assembly Meetings.- aa. The Limitations of Direct Democracy.- bb. Attendance in Centuriate Elections.- cc. Attendance in the Tribal Assembly.- dd. Mobilization of the Absentee Vote.- ee. General Conclusions.- 7. Political Groupments and “Parties”.- a. Pluralism in Rome.- b. The “Personalized” Style of Politics.- c. Political Alignments Within the Ruling Nobility: optimates and populares.- aa. The Revolution of the Gracchi Brothers.- bb. Marius and Sulla.- cc. Caesar and the Victory of the populares.- dd. The End of Factionalism: Octavianus-Augustus.- d. The Absence of Organized Political Parties.- e. Inapplicability of the Customary Party Criteria.- aa. No Mass Basis.- bb. No Political Program or Ideology.- cc. No Party Organization.- dd. No Distinguishing Party Identification.- V: The Political Institutions of the Republic III: The Senate.- 1. Size of Membership.- 2. Term of Office.- 3. Qualifications and Mode of Investiture.- 4. The Senatorial Ruling Class.- 5. Procedure of the Meetings.- a. The Setting.- b. The Debates.- c. The Vote.- 6. Jurisdiction.- a. The interregnum.- b. The auctoritas patrum.- aa. Legislation.- bb. Elections.- 7. The Senate as the Supreme State Organ.- a. The Historical Record.- b. The Roman Political System and the Reality of the Power Process.- 8. Senatorial Functions.- a. Control of Foreign Policy.- b. Military Control.- c. Financial Control.- d. Additional Expansions of Senatorial Powers.- e. Emergency Regime and the “Ultimate Decree”.- aa. The Mechanics.- bb. The Record of the Practice.- cc. The Problem of Constitutionality.- 9. Attacks Against the Supremacy of the Senate.- a. The Reforms of Appius Claudius.- b. The Conflict with the Gracchi.- 10. Sulla’s Constitutional Reforms.- a. The Reconstruction of the Senate.- b. The Emasculation of the Tribunate.- c. Magistracies and Provincial Governorships.- d. Senatorial Control of Criminal Justice.- 11. The Senate; A Retrospective Evaluation.- VI: The Administration of Justice.- 1. Roman Law.- 2. The Administration of Civil Justice.- a. The Praetor as Source of Law.- b. Praetor and Trial Judge (judex).- c. The Transformation of the Praetorian Jurisprudence.- d. Single Judge or Judicial Bench.- 3. The Administration of Criminal Justice.- a. Private Retribution.- b. Criminal Jurisdiction of the Magistrates.- c. Criminal Justice by Juror Courts.- 4. Concept and Reality of Freedom.- a. Liberias and auctoritas.- b. Civil Liberties.- VII: The Collapse of the Republican Order.- 1. The Decomposition of the Social Structure.- a. The Plutocracy.- b. The Disappearance of the Independent Middle Class.- 2. The Failure of the Agrarian Reform.- a. The Growth of the latifundia Economy.- b. The Agrarian Reforms of the Gracchi.- c. The Disappearance of the Independent Farmer.- 3. The Rise of the condottieri.- a. The Tradition: Military Command and Civilian Office.- b. The Ascendancy of the Military Over the Civilian Function.- c. The Change in the Military Organization.- 4. The Erosion of the Republican Constitution.- a. Constitutional Irregularities.- b. The coups d’état of Sulla.- c. The Principate That Failed: Pompey.- d. The First Triumvirate.- e. The Conquest of the Republic by Caesar.- 5. Caesar’s Monocracy.- a. The Pattern of Government: Plebiscitary Caesarism.- b. Caesar’s Constitutional Powers.- c. The Public Image.- d. The Emasculation of the Republican Institutions.- aa. The Senate.- bb. The Magistracies.- cc. The Assemblies.- e. Caesar’s Domestic Reforms.- f. The Ambivalence of Caesar’s Monocracy.- aa. A Terminological Clarification.- bb. Caesar’s Attitude Toward Monarchy.- cc. Caesar’s Rule in the Context of the Roman Political Civilization.- A Postscript: Why the Roman Republic Never Became a Democracy.- a. The Intangible Factors of the National Character.- b. The Institutional Arrangements.- Two: The Empire.- Section One: Augustus and the Foundation of the Principate.- Introduction: Principate and Dominate.- I: The Establishment of the Principate.- 1. The Historical Record from Caesar’s Death to the Consolidation of Augustus’ Rule.- a. The Second Triumvirate.- b. The Establishment of Octavian’s Constitutional Leadership.- 2. Augustus’ Constitutional Monocracy.- a. Measures of Constitutional Normalization.- b. The Settlement of January 13, 27: Return to Constitutional Government.- c. The Lex as the Legal Basis of Imperial Rule.- d. The Military Basis of the Constitutional Monocracy.- 3. The Consummation of the Augustan Principate.- a. The Power Configuration After the Settlement of 23 B.C..- aa. The Tribunician Powers.- bb. The Supreme Proconsular Imperium.- b. The Constitutional Character of the Augustan Principate.- II: The Institutions of the Augustan Principate I.- A. The Republican Magistracies.- 1. The Consuls.- 2. The Praetors.- 3. The Censors.- 4. The Aediles.- 5. The Quaestors.- 6. The Tribunate.- 7. The Provincial Governors.- 8. The Cursus Honorum.- 9. Sociological Observations on the Republican Magistracy.- B. The Popular Assemblies.- 1. The Electoral Process.- a. General Observations.- b. The Experiment of the Absentee Ballot.- c. Candidacies for Elective Office.- d. The Manifestation of Imperial Preference for Candidacies.- e. The Electoral Process Under Augustus’ Rule.- f. Electoral Reform: The Primary (destinatio).- g. Transfer of the Nominating Procedure to the Senate.- 2. Comitial Legislation.- 3. The Investiture of the Princeps by Comitial Act and the Lex Regia.- III: The Institutions of the Augustan Principate II.- C. The Senate.- 1. Composition of Membership.- 2. Organization and Procedure.- 3. Jurisdiction and the Concept of the Dyarchy.- 4. Augustus’ Senatorial Policy.- D. The New Bureaucracy.- 1. Professional Bureaucracy and Constitutional Government.- 2. The Imperial Bureaucracy: General Observations.- 3. The Social Classes and the Imperial Bureaucracy.- 4. The Central Imperial Administration.- 5. The Imperial Chancery.- 6. The Imperial Council of State (consilium).- IV: The Administration of Justice.- 1. Administration of Civil Justice.- a. The Praetorian Jurisdiction.- b. Jurisdiction of the Princeps-Emperor.- 2. Administration of Criminal Justice.- a. Traditional Organs.- b. Jurisdiction of the Senate.- c. Imperial Jurisdiction.- 3. The Role of Jurisprudence.- V: The Augustan Reform Legislation.- 1. Financial Reforms.- a. Taxation and Revenue.- b. The Treasuries.- c. Financial Administration.- 2. Social Reforms.- a. Improvements in the Administration of the City of Rome.- b. Municipal Government in Italy and the Provinces.- c. Legislation for the Improvement of Morals.- d. Religious Policy.- VI: The Creator and His Work.- 1. Augustus and the Problem of Succession.- 2. Augustus Personality.- 3. The Augustan Principate as a Pattern of Government.- a. The Controversy and Its Importance for the Theory of Government.- b. The Three-Level Aspect of the Regime.- c. The RepubHcan Concept of the Princeps and Cicero’s Influence.- d. A Military Dictatorship?.- e. The Regime as a Monarchy.- f. The Republican Frame of the Regime.- g. The Augustan Principate as a Republican Monocracy.- Section Two: The Principate in Operation.- VII: The Period in Retrospect.- VIII: The Emperor.- 1. Some Vital Statistics of the Emperorship.- 2. Investiture and the Problem of Succession.- 3. The Stability of the Principate as a Political System.- a. The Republican Opposition.- b. The Obliteration of the Republican Past.- c. The Growth of the Imperial Idea.- 4. Powers and Functions — General Character.- a. Legal Basis.- b. Individual Imperial Attributions.- c. Delegation of Imperial Powers.- d. The Co-Regency within the Context of the Principate Government.- e. The Paraphernalia of the Imperial Dignity.- aa. Titles.- bb. Insignia.- cc. Deification.- f. Dethronement of the Emperor.- 5. The Emperor as Source of Law.- a. The Conflicting Literary Tradition.- b. The Traditional Sources of Law.- aa. The Withering-Away of Comitial Legislation.- bb. Legislation by the Senate.- cc. Ius Honorarium and the Julian Edict of Hadrian.- c. Imperial Law-making.- aa. Edicta.- bb. Mandata.- cc. Rescripta.- dd. Décréta.- d. The Imperial Legislator and the Jurisconsults.- aa. Lawyers as Imperial Advisors.- bb. Lawyers as Imperial Officials.- IX: The Fate of the Republican Institutions.- 1. The Obliteration of the Elective Procedures.- 2. The Republican Magistracies.- a. The Consulate.- b. The Praetorship.- c. The Censorate.- 3. The Senate.- a. The Effacement of the Political Functions.- b. The Investiture of the Emperor as Constitutional Function.- X: The Social Classes.- 1. The Senatorial Order.- 2. The Equestrian Order.- 3. The Decuriones.- 4. The Masses.- XI: The Administration of the Empire.- 1. The Territorial Expansion.- 2. Patterns of Territorial Integration Under the Republic.- a. The Area of Italy.- b. The Provinces.- 3. Empire Administration Under the Principate.- a. Italy.- b. Senatorial and Imperial Provinces.- 4. Citizenship and Law as Instruments of Empire Integration.- a. Common Citizenship.- b. The Empire as Community of Law.- XII: Decline and Fall of the Principate.- 1. Economic and Financial Deterioration.- 2. The Military Situation.- a. The Defense Perimeter.- b. The Barbarization of the Armies.- 3. The Alienation of the Individual from the State.- 4. The Failure of the Governmental Institutions.- Section Three: The Dominate.- XIII: The Period in Retrospect.- 1. The Dominate as a Novel Political System.- 2. Chronological Delineation of the Period.- 3. Division and Unity of the Empire.- 4. Defense Against the Barbarian Invaders.- 5. The Want of Consensus.- XIV: The Rise of Christianity as the State Religion.- 1. Christianity and Paganism.- 2. Christianity as the Established Church.- 3. The Organization of Christianity as a Church.- a. The Papacy.- b. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy.- c. The Synods and Councils.- d. The Monastic Element.- XV: The Emperor.- 1. General Observations.- 2. Investiture and Succession.- a. Collegiate Government: The Tetrarchy.- b. The Ascendancy of Dynastic Legitimism.- 3. The Constitutional Position.- 4. The Imperial Style.- a. Titles.- b. Imperial Sanctity.- 5. Powers and Functions.- a. Legislation.- b. Other Attributions.- XVI: The Organization of the Imperial Government.- A. The Central Government.- 1. Territorial Reorganization.- 2. Institutions of the Central Government.- a. The Imperial Court.- aa. The Palace.- bb. The Consistory.- cc. The Imperial Retinue.- b. The Offices of the Central Administration.- aa. The Top Level of Imperial Officials.- c. The Bureaucratic Establishment.- aa. Organization and Status.- bb. Control of the Bureaucratic Apparatus.- 3. The Residues of the Republican Institutions.- a. The Senate.- b. Republican Offices.- B. The Government of the Territorial Subdivisions.- 1. The Empire as “Decentralized” Unitary State.- 2. The Levels of Territorial Organization.- 3. Territorial Decentralization in Operation.- a. The Prefectures.- b. The Dioceses.- c. The Provinces.- d. Municipal Administration.- e. The City of Rome.- C. Observations on the Bureaucracy as the Ruling Class.- 1. Bureaucracy as Restraint on Absolutism.- 2. The Bureaucracy as the Ruling Elite.- 3. Titles as Elements of Bureaucratic Hierarchization.- XVII: The Administration of Justice and the Law.- 1. The Ordinary Courts.- 2. Judicial Protection of the Lower Classes.- a. The Defensor Civitatis.- b. The Bishop as Judicial Organ.- 3. The Decline of Jurisprudence and the Emergence of “Vulgar” Law.- 4. The Eastern Law Schools.- 5. Justinian’s Codification.- a. Forerunners.- b. The Drafting Procedure.- c. The Divisions of the Corpus Juris Civilis.- aa. The Two Codices.- bb. The Digests or Pandects.- cc. The Institutes.- 6. Roman Law after Justinian.- a. The Eastern-Byzantine World.- b. The Triumph of Roman Law in the West.- XVIII: The Coercive State.- 1. The Economic Crisis.- a. The Agrarian Feudalization.- b. The Dislocation of Trade.- c. The Discrepancies in the Distribution of Wealth.- 2. The Monetary Syndrome: Inflation and Devaluation.- 3. Taxation and Finances.- a. The Land Tax (iugatio).- b. Other Contributions.- c. Indirect Taxes.- 4. State Intervention and Managed Economy.- a. State Economic Regulation.- b. Diocletian’s Price Control Edict.- c. State Monopolies.- 5. The Cadres of Social Compulsion: The Social Classes.- a. The Senatorial Class.- b. The Municipal Officials.- c. The Landowning Nobility.- 6. The Shackled Society: Corporate Regimentation.- a. The Agricultural Colonate.- b. Professional Corporativism.- c. The Military.- 7. Leviathan and the Individual.- Epilogue: Rome’s Impact on the Civilization of the Western World.- 1. Influence on Subsequent Political Institutions.- 2. The Major Bequests toWestern Civilization.- 3. The Model Pattern of Constitutional Government.- 4. Contributions to the Theory and Science of Politics.- Register of Names.- Index of Subjects.