Experimental Electronics for Students

1 Introductory General Notes.- 1.1 Soldering components to interconnections when utilizing strip board.- 1.2 Resistor colour code.- 1.3 Symbols used in circuit diagrams.- 1.4 Symbols for quantities.- 1.5 Abbreviations.- 1.6 Notes on some aspects of electrical measuring instruments.- 2 Semiconductor Diodes: Characteristics; Use in D.C. Power Supplies.- 2.1 Semiconductor diodes.- 2.1.1 Characteristics of a p-n junction diode.- 2.1.2 Determination of e/k.- 2.1.3 Questions.- 2.1.4 Further investigations.- 2.2 Zener diodes.- 2.2.1 The reverse characteristic of a Zener diode.- 2.2.2 Question.- 2.3 D.C. power supplies: an introduction.- 2.3.1 Half-wave rectifier.- 2.3.2 Half-wave rectifier with reservoir smoothing capacitor.- 2.3.3 Full-wave rectifier, transformer and bridge circuits.- 2.3.4 Full-wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor.- 2.3.5 Zener diode across a full-wave rectifier circuit.- 2.3.6 Zener diode stabilization.- 2.3.7 Question.- 2.3.8 Further investigations.- 3 Bipolar Junction Transistors: Characteristics and Simple Associated Circuits.- 3.1 Bipolar junction transistors.- 3.2 Characteristics of an n-p-n transistor in common-base (CB) connection.- 3.2.1 Output characteristics and output conductance hob.- 3.2.2 The current gain.- 3.2.3 Power considerations.- 3.2.4 More accurate value of hob.- 3.3 Characteristics of an n-p-n bipolar transistor in common-emitter (CE) connection.- 3.3.1 Output characteristics and the output conductance hoe.- 3.3.2 The current gain hfe.- 3.3.3 Power dissipation.- 3.4 A bipolar transistor tester.- 3.5 Further investigation.- 3.6 Voltage stabilizing circuits: general information; the use of bipolar transistors.- 3.6.1 Emitter follower voltage stabilizer.- 3.7 Constant current sources: introduction.- 3.7.1 A constant current source based on a bipolar junction transistor.- 3.7.2 Further investigations.- 3.8 Amplifiers: use of bipolar transistors.- 3.8.1 A common-emitter (CE) bipolar transistor single-stage amplifier.- 3.9 Sinusoidal waveform generators.- 3.9.1 A phase-shift sinusoidal oscillator based on a bipolar transistor.- 3.9.2 A crystal-controlled sinusoidal oscillator.- 3.9.3 A Wien bridge oscillator.- 3.10 Multivibrators.- 3.10.1 The stable (free-running) multivibrator.- 3.10.2 Effect of varying the applied voltage on the period of a free-running multivibrator.- 3.10.3 A gated free-running multivibrator.- 3.10.4 The monostable multivibrator.- 3.10.5 A monostable multivibrator utilizing bipolar transistors for experimental work.- 3.10.6 The bistable multivibrator.- 3.10.7 A bistable multivibrator based on bipolar transistors.- 3.11 The Schmitt trigger circuit.- 3.12 Sweep generator: utilizing the bootstrap principle.- 3.13 An optically-coupled isolator.- 3.13.1 Ouput characteristics of the phototransistor.- 3.13.2 Current transfer ratio.- 3.13.3 Photodiode operation.- 3.13.4 Switching characteristic.- 3.13.5 Questions.- 3.14 A typical application of an optically-coupled isolator.- 4 Field Effect Transistors: Characteristics and Simple Associated Circuits.- 4.1 Field-effect transistors (FETs or fets).- 4.1.1 The drain characteristics.- 4.1.2 The effect of temperature on the drain current ID.- 4.1.3 Use as a voltage-controlled resistance.- 4.1.4 The transfer characteristic.- 4.1.5 Automatic bias; provision of gate-source bias by means of a source resistor.- 4.1.6 Demonstration of the high input resistance of a fet.- 4.1.7 Further investigation.- 4.2 A simple common-source fet amplifier.- 4.2.1 The voltage gain of a fet amplifier.- 4.3 Sinusoidal waveform generators based on field-effect transistors.- 4.4 Multivibrators utilizing fets.- 4.4.1 A free-running multivibrator based on the use of n-channel fets.- 4.4.2 A hybrid free-running multivibrator.- 4.4.3 A voltage-to-frequency converter based on a free-running multivibrator utilizing field-effect transistors.- 4.4.4 A monostable multivibrator with a pulse width determined by a fet-based constant current source.- 5 Unijunction Transistors; Silicon Controlled Rectifiers: Characteristics and Applications.- 5.1 Unijunction transistors (UJTs or ujts).- 5.1.1 The intrinsic stand-off ratio.- 5.2 Relaxation oscillators.- 5.2.1 A relaxation oscillator based on a unijunction transistor.- 5.3 A staircase generator or frequency divider based on a unijunction transistor.- 5.4 Programmable unijunction transistors (PUTs or puts).- 5.4.1 Selection of the value of the intrinsic stand-off ratio with a put.- 5.5 A relaxation oscillator based on a put.- 5.6 Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs or scrs).- 5.7 Phase control by means of silicon controlled rectifiers.- 5.7.1 Half-wave phase control with a phase angle between 0 and ?/2.- 5.7.2 Half-wave phase control with a phase angle between 0 and ?.- 5.7.3 Questions.- 5.8 Phase control by means of an scr fired by pulses from a ujt circuit.- 5.8.1 Phase control utilizing two scrs.- 5.8.2 Alternative control of the phase angle.- 5.8.3 Utilizing a ujt firing circuit with simple negative feedback.- 5.8.4 Further investigations.- 5.9 Phase control by means of a put.- 5.10 A bistable circuit based on the use of silicon controlled rectifiers.- 6 More Complex Amplifiers and some Applications.- 6.1 Differential or difference amplifiers.- 6.1.1 To determine the similarity between two fets fabricated on the same silicon substrate.- 6.1.2 The phase relationships in the differential amplifier.- 6.1.3 The paraphase amplifier.- 6.1.4 The differential voltage gain Ad.- 6.1.5 The common-mode voltage gain Ac.- 6.1.6 The common-mode rejection ratio (cmrr).- 6.1.7 Use of a constant current source to replace RS.- 6.1.8 Questions.- 6.2 Operational amplifiers.- 6.2.1 The closed-loop gain of the inverting configuration.- 6.2.2 The closed-loop gain of the non-inverting configuration.- 6.2.3 The operational amplifier as a sign inverter.- 6.2.4 The gain control in the inverting configuration.- 6.2.5 Further investigation.- 6.2.6 The frequency response of the amplifier in the inverting configuration.- 6.2.7 The closed-loop gain in the non-inverting configuration.- 6.2.8 Frequency response in the non-inverting configuration.- 6.2.9 Simultaneous product and sum.- 6.2.10 Comment.- 6.2.11 Integrated circuit operational amplifiers.- 6.2.12 Transfer characteristic of the amplifier in the inverting configuration.- 6.2.13 Frequency response of the amplifier in the inverting configuration.- 6.2.14 Slew rate limiting of the amplifier.- 6.2.15 A logarithmic amplifier.- 6.2.16 Measurement of the input bias currents and the offset voltage of an operational amplifier.- 6.3 Applications of operational amplifiers.- 6.3.1 Use of an operational amplifier to current drive a meter.- 6.3.2 The operational integrator and its use as a ramp generator.- 6.3.3 Questions.- 6.3.4 A squaring circuit.- 6.3.5 A free-running multivibrator based on the use of an operational amplifier.- 6.3.6 Sensitivity of the frequency of the free-running multivibrator based on an operational amplifier to the supply voltage.- 6.3.7 A monostable multivibrator based on an operational amplifier.- 6.3.8 Voltage stabilization based on an operational amplifier.- 6.3.9 Voltage stabilization based on a Darlington pair and an operational amplifier.- 6.3.10 Questions.- 6.3.11 Further investigation.- 6.4 Voltage-to-frequency converters which make use of an operational amplifier.- 6.4.1 A voltage-to-frequency converter based on a unijunction transistor.- 6.4.2 A Voltage-to-frequency converter based on a programmable unijunction transistor.- 6.4.3 A voltage-to-frequency converter based on a free-running multivibrator utilizing field-effect transistors.- 6.5 A high-quality pre-amplifier for audio frequency signals.- 6.5.1 The frequency response of the audio frequency amplifier.- 6.5.2 The dependence of the amplifier voltage gain on the supply voltage.- 6.5.3 The dependence of the amplifier performance on the characteristics of the individual transistor.- 6.5.4 An equalization network.- 6.5.5 Further Investigations.- 6.5.6 The input impedance of the pre-amplifier.- 7 Logic Gates.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 TTL and CMOS compared.- 7.1.2 Basic constraints on TTL circuit design and operation.- 7.1.3 A logic probe.- 7.2 The basic TTL 2-input NAND gate.- 7.2.1 The SN7400N quad 2-input NAND unit.- 7.3 Multivibrator circuits based on NAND gates of the TTL type.- 7.3.1 A bistable circuit based on the use of two 2-input NAND gates.- 7.4 Further pulse generator circuits based on NAND gates.- 7.5 The OR and the exclusive-OR functions.- 7.6 Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) logic gates.- 7.6.1 A NAND gate.- 7.6.2 The power consumption of a CMOS gate.- 7.6.3 The current flow to a CMOS gate in the ambient and switching modes.- 7.6.4 The power consumption of a TTL gate.- 7.6.5 Rise time, fall time and propagation time for a CMOS gate.- 7.6.6 Further investigations.- 7.7 Multivibrator circuits based on NAND gates of the CMOS type.- 8 Some integrated Circuits.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.1.1 An integrated circuit electronic timer.- 8.1.2 Monostable or ’one-shot’ operation of the electronic timer.- 8.1.3 Astable (free-running) operation of the electronic timer.- 8.1.4 Use of the electronic timer (555) to provide a linear voltage ramp.- 8.1.5 Effect of the control voltage on the monostable operation of the electronic timer 555.- 8.1.6 Further investigation.- 8.2 A monolithic integrated circuit voltage stabilizer.- 8.2.1 To determine the voltage stabilization factor Svof the ic voltage regulator.- 8.3 Voltage-to-frequency converters.- 8.3.1 A voltage-to-frequency converter based on two operational amplifiers in an integrated circuit module.- 8.3.2 An alternative voltage-to-frequency converter based on the 747 dual opamp ic.- 8.4 Monolithic integrated circuit waveform generators.- 8.4.1 The power supply connections of the ic waveform generator.- 8.4.2 The use of external timing components with the ic waveform generator.- 8.4.3 Independence of the frequency of the supply voltage of the ic waveform generator.- 8.4.4 Sine-wave distortion of the ic waveform generator.- 8.4.5 The ic waveform generator as a voltage-controlled oscillator.- 8.5 Waveform generators of the multivibrator type based on NAND gates.- 8.5.1 Astable (free-running) multivibrators based on (a) a SN 7400N and (b) a CMOS unit 4011.- 8.5.2 An ic monostable multivibrator.- 8.5.3 A Schmitt trigger circuit based on two 2-input NAND gates.- 8.5.4 Additional investigation.- 8.6 A decade counter and a cold-cathode number display tube.- 8.6.1 Shaping the input pulses.- 8.6.2 Dialling-in decimal numbers to be added.- 8.6.3 The decade counter and its BCD output.- 8.6.4 Counting the pulses from a low-frequency frequency multivibrator.