1 Vascular Epiphytes: Setting the Scene.- 1.1 The Conquest of Space.- 1.2 Life-Forms.- 1.3 Importance: Biomass Production, Taxonomic Diversity, Economic Use.- 1.4 Stress.- 1.4.1 Environmental Gradients Along Stratum Heights in Rainforests.- 1.4.2 Stress Driving Evolution.- 1.4.3 Stress and Ecophysiology.- 1.4.4 Stress Determining Floristic Diversity.- 1.5 Interactions with Other Non-Host Organisms.- 1.6 Curiosity.- References.- 2 The Evolution of Epiphytism.- 2.1 Ancestral Habitats: Dark and Moist or Exposed and Dry?.- 2.2 The Geologic Record of Epiphytism.- 2.3 The Systematic Occurrence of Epiphytes.- 2.4 Epiphytism as a Coherent Ecological Category.- 2.5 Classification of Epiphytes.- 2.6 Continuously-Supplied Versus Pulse-Supplied Epiphytes . ..- 2.7 Patterns of Origin.- 2.8 Predisposition and Phylogenetic Constraints.- 2.9 Historical Basis for Canopy Dependence.- 2.9.1 Ferns.- 2.9.2 Liliopsida as a Whole.- 2.9.3 Nonorchid Monocotyledons.- 2.9.4 Orchids.- 2.9.5 Dicotyledons.- 2.9.6 Ancestral Habitats.- References.- 3 Carbon Dioxide Concentrating Mechanisms and the Evolution of CAM in Vascular Epiphytes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Evolution and Characteristics of Biochemical and Biophysical C02 Concentrating Mechanisms.- 3.2.1 Carboxylase and Oxygenase Functions of RUBISCO ..- 3.2.2 C4 Photosynthesis as a C02 Concentrating Mechanism.- 3.2.3 CAM as a C02 Concentrating Mechanism.- 3.2.4 C02 Concentrating Mechanisms in Aquatic Plants.- 3.3 Ecophysiological Interactions in the Development of C02 Concentrating Mechanisms.- 3.3.1 Efficiency of Water Use.- 3.3.2 Carbon Economy.- 3.3.3 Nitrogen Economy.- 3.3.4 Responses to Photosynthetically Active Radiation.- 3.4 Phylogenetic Distribution of CAM in Vascular Epiphytes.- 3.4.1 Evolution of Epiphytism and CAM in the Polypodiaceae.- 3.4.2 Evolution of Epiphytism and CAM in the Monocotyledons.- 3.4.3 Evolution of Epiphytism and CAM in the Dicotyledons.- 3.5 Regulation and Expression of CAM in Vascular Epiphytes ..- 3.5.1 Constitutive CAM.- 3.5.2 C3-CAM Intermediates.- 3.6 Cost-Benefit Relationships of C02 Concentrating Mechanisms.- 3.6.1 Energetics of C02 Concentrating Mechanisms.- 3.6.2 C3 and CAM Epiphyte Habitat Preference.- 3.7 Evolution of CAM and the Epiphytic Habit: Conclusions.- References.- 4 Gas Exchange and Water Relations in Epiphytic Tropical Ferns.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The Ecophysiological Problem.- 4.3 Nest Ferns.- 4.3.1 Morphology.- 4.3.2 Gas Exchange of Nest Ferns in Situ.- 4.4 Xeromorphic Ferns.- 4.4.1 Anatomical and Physiological Adaptations.- 4.4.2 Performance of CAM Ferns Under Laboratory Conditions.- 4.4.2.1 Water Deficiency.- 4.4.2.2 Temperature Requirements.- 4.4.2.3 Light Requirements.- 4.4.3 Performance of CAM Ferns in Situ.- 4.5 Water Use Efficiency of Epiphytic Ferns.- 4.6 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Epiphytic Bromeliads.- 5.1 Ecological Range and Diversity of the Bromeliaceae.- 5.2 Bromeliad Systematics and Life-Forms.- 5.2.1 Systematics.- 5.2.2 Life-Forms.- 5.3 Carbon Assimilation.- 5.3.1 Occurrence of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) and C3 Photosynthesis.- 5.3.2 Gas Exchange and Photosynthesis in CAM and C3 Bromeliads.- 5.3.3 Photosynthetic Responses to Light Intensity.- 5.3.4 Photosynthetic Ecology.- 5.4 Water Relations.- 5.5 Phylogenetic Ecology.- References.- 6 Gas Exchange and Water Relations in Epiphytic Orchids.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Terrestrial and Epiphytic Orchids.- 6.3 Growth Habit.- 6.4 The Epiphytic Habitat of Orchids.- 6.5 Gas Exchange Patterns as Related to Succulence in Epiphytic Orchids.- 6.6 In Situ Studies of CAM in Epiphytic Orchids.- 6.7 Light Requirements.- 6.8 Water Relations in Epiphytic Orchids.- 6.9 The Physiology of Aerial Roots.- 6.9.1 Water Relations.- 6.9.2 Gas Exchange.- 6.9.3 Mode of Photosynthesis.- 6.10 The Evolution of Epiphytism in Orchids.- References.- 7 The Mineral Nutrition of Epiphytes.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Nutrient Sources in Forest Canopies.- 7.2.1 Atmospheric Input.- 7.2.2 Bark and Other Solid Media.- 7.3 Nutritional Modes.- 7.3.1 Mutualism.- 7.3.2 Hemiepiphytism.- 7.3.3 Humus-Based Nutrition.- 7.3.4 Unequivocal Carnivores.- 7.3.5 Carnivorous Bromeliads.- 7.3.6 Animal Assistance to Noncarnivores.- 7.3.7 Atmospheric Nutrition.- 7.4 Does Scarcity of Nutrient Ions Limit Epiphyte Vigor?.- 7.5 Effects on Forest Economy.- 7.5.1 Nutritional Piracy.- 7.5.2 Relationship to Other Environmental Factors.- 7.6 Conclusions and Outlook.- References.- 8 Epiphytic Associations with Ants.- 8.1 Ubiquity and Sociality of Ants: Diversity of Ant-Epiphyte Relations.- 8.2 Opportunistic Associations of Epiphytes and Ants.- 8.2.1 Carton as Epiphyte Substrate.- 8.2.2 Fitness Outcomes and Limits to Specialization and Abundance.- 8.3 Myrmecophytic Epiphytes.- 8.3.1 Benefits to Ants.- 8.3.2 Benefits to Plants.- 8.3.3 Complex Interaction Networks.- 8.3.4 Epiphytes, Ants and Host Trees.- 8.3.5 Habitat Quality and Ant-Epiphyte Assocations.- 8.4 Origins of Myrmecophytic Epiphytes.- 8.5 Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 9 The Systematic Distribution of Vascular Epiphytes.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Sources of Compilation and Methods of Classification of Epiphytes.- 9.3 Numbers of Epiphytes and Taxonomic Distribution.- 9.4 Our Knowledge of Epiphytes and Perspectives.- References.
