Wind Energy Meteorology

Atmospheric Physics for Wind Power Generation

Specificaties
Gebonden, blz. | Engels
Springer | 2e druk, 2018
ISBN13: 9783319728582
Rubricering
Hoofdrubriek : Wetenschap en techniek
Springer 2e druk, 2018 9783319728582
Onderdeel van serie Green Energy and Technology
Verwachte levertijd ongeveer 9 werkdagen

Samenvatting

This book offers an introduction to the meteorological boundary conditions for power generation from wind – both onshore and offshore, and provides meteorological information for the planning and running of this important renewable energy source. It includes the derivation of wind laws and wind-profile descriptions, especially those above the logarithmic surface layer, and discusses winds over complex terrains and nocturnal low-level jets. This updated and expanded second edition features new chapters devoted to the efficiency of large wind parks and their wakes and to offshore wind energy.

Specificaties

ISBN13:9783319728582
Taal:Engels
Bindwijze:gebonden
Uitgever:Springer
Druk:2
Verschijningsdatum:17-4-2018

Inhoudsopgave

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Scope of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Overview of Existing Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 History of Wind Energy Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Potential of Wind Energy Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Present Status of Wind Energy Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Structure of This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Wind Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Global Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Driving Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Hydrostatic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Momentum Budget Equations for the Wind . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Geostrophic Winds and Gradient Winds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Thermal Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Boundary Layer Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Thunderstorm Gusts and Tornados. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Air Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Thermal stratification of the air
2.8.1 The geostrophic drag law
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Vertical Profiles Over Flat Terrain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1 Surface Layer (Prandtl Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 Logarithmic Wind Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.2 Power Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.3 Comparison Between Logarithmic and Power Law . . . . . 33
3.1.4 Vertical Wind Profile with Large Wind Speeds . . . . . . . 40
3.2 Profile Laws Above the Surface Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Ekman Layer Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Inertial Oscillations in the Ekman Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.3 Vertical Wind Profiles in the Ekman Layer . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.4 Unified Description of the Wind Profile for the Boundary Layer . . . . 43
3.3 Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Diurnal Variations of the Wind Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.1 Vertical Profiles of the Weibull Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.2 Low Level Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5 Internal Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6 Wind and Turbulence Profiles Over Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7 Winds in Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7.1 Characteristics of Urban Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.2 Vertical Profiles of Wind and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7.3 Special Flow Phenomena in Urban Canopy Layers . . . . . 67
3.8 Summary for Flat Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Winds in Complex Terrain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1 Characteristics of Boundary Layers Over Complex Terrain . . . . 76
4.1.1 Mountain and Valley Winds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.2 Katabatic Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2 Wind Profiles Over a Hill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.1 Potential Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.2 Modifications to the Potential Flow: Addition of an Inner Layer . . . 83
4.2.3 Modifications to the Potential Flow: Consideration of Thermal Stability . . . 86
4.3 Wind Profiles Over an Escarpment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4 Terrain ruggedness
4.5 Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6 Diurnal Variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.7 Summary for Complex Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5 Offshore Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1 Characteristics of Marine Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.1.1 Sea Surface Roughness and Drag Coefficient . . . . . . . . . 96
5.1.2 Fetch and Stability Dependent Wave Formation . . . . . . . 101
5.1.3 Extreme Wave Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.1.4 Wave Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.1.5 Impact of the Vertical Moisture Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.6 Annual and Diurnal Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2 Vertical Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3 Extreme Wind Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.4 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.1 Turbulence Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.4.2 Wind Speed Variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.4.3 Turbulence Length Scales and Inclination Angles . . . . . . 122
5.4.4 Gust Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.5 Weibull Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.6 Coastal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.6.1 Land and Sea Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.6.2 Low-Level Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.7 Summary for Marine Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6 Physics of Wind Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.1 Turbine Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2 Wind farm wakes
6.2.1 Observations
6.2.2 Analytical Model for Mean Wind Speed in Wind Parks . . . . . . . 138
6.2.3 Analytical Model for Wind Park Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.4 Application of the Analytical Model with FINO1 Stability Data . . . . . 146
6.3 Risks that a Tornado Hits a Wind Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4 Summary for Wind Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7 Wind data sources
7.1 Measurements
7.1.1 In situ measurements
7.1.2 Surface-based remote sensing
7.1.3 Determination of mixing height
7.1.4 Satellite data
7.1.5 Representativity and quality of measured wind data
7.2 Models
7.2.1 Analytical models
7.2.2 Numerical models
7.2.2.1 Forecast models
7.2.2.2 Reanalysis data
7.2.2.3 Large eddy simulations
7.2.2.4 CFD models
7.2.2.5 The gap problem between the mesoscale and the microscale
7.3 Statistical tools
7.3.1 Time series analysis
7.3.2 Mean wind speed spectrum and the Weibull distribution
7.3.3 Extreme mean wind speeds and the Gumbel distribution
7.3.4 Extreme gusts
7.3.5 Gust duration and wind acceleration in gusts
7.3.6 Size of turbulence elements
7.3.7 Measure – correlate – predict (MCP)
References
8 Noise generation and noise propagation
8.1 Noise generation
8.2 Noise propagation
References
9 Other meteorological issues
9.1 Icing
9.2 Lightning
9.3 Aerosols, salt, dust
References
10 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.1 Size of Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.2 Size of Offshore Wind Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.3 Other Techniques of Converting Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.4 New Measurement and Modelling Tools to Assess Wind Conditions . . 156
10.5 Wind Resources and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.6 Repercussions of Large-Scale Wind Power Extraction on Weather and Climate. . . .158
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

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