Shiga toxins

<div>1. Outbreaks of Shiga toxin-related poisoning</div><div><div>An overview of the numerous major outbreaks of Shiga toxin related poisonings that have occurred in the United States and Europe, including</div><div>- the early outbreaks at McDonalds in 1982, the infamous Jack in the Box outbreak in 1993&nbsp;</div><div>- the European outbreak associated with fresh sprouts in 2013</div><div>- 9 outbreaks associated with spinach or lettuce from the Salinas Valley of California’s central coast.</div></div><div><br></div>2. Structure of Shiga toxins<div><div>-- a complex structure and mechanism of action</div><div>-- six subunits, five identical binding units and one catalytic unit that is responsible for the toxicity</div><div>-- relationship between Shiga toxins and other AB5 toxins</div><div>-- subtypes of Shiga toxins and new variants that have recently emerged.</div></div><div><br></div><div>3. Mechanism of action</div><div>-- the phage biology that controls the production of the toxins</div><div>-- translocation of toxin to sites of action</div><div>-- toxin action at the cellular and molecular level.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>4. Significant threats to human health</div><div><div>-- impact of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance on STEC disease</div><div>-- intoxication with more than one toxin</div><div>-- sequellae of STEC-provoked disease.</div></div><div><br></div>5. Methods for detection of Shiga toxins-- classical animal bioassay</div><div>-- immunoassay, including ELISA and solid and bead array systems</div><div>-- cell-based methods</div><div>-- indirect PCR-based methods</div><div>-- instrumental methods, including mass spectrometry, for directly detecting these toxins.</div><div><br></div><div>6. Conclusions and a glimpse into the future</div><div>-- a significant and growing threat to human health and food biosecurity</div><div>-- translation of lab bench science into clinical treatments for STEC disease.</div>