Vision and Attention

1 Vision and Attention.- 1.1 What Is Attention?.- 1.1.1 Should “attention” be regarded as a discrete behaviour?.- 1.2 Selective Visual Attention.- 1.2.1 What is selected?.- 1.2.2 How is selection achieved? How much salience is due to the sensory input itself and how much to higher processes?.- 1.2.3 What is the connection between selection and attention?.- 1.2.4 Mechanisms of selective attention.- 1.3 Parsing Attention. Is Attention Central to the Act of Seeing or is it Merely a Servant Carrying its Master to the Right Place?.- 1.4 Directing Attention.- 1.5 Conclusions.- 2 Shifts of Attention and Saccades Are Very Similar. Are They Causally Linked?.- 2.1 Spatial Attributes of Attention.- 2.2 Coordinate Space of Focal Attention.- 2.3 Overt and Covert Orientation.- 2.4 Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Attentional Control.- 2.5 Shifting Attention.- 2.6 Coupling Between Saccadic Eye Movements and Attentional Shifts.- 2.7 Adaptive Control of Saccadic Eye Movements.- 2.8 Nature of the Error Signal.- 2.9 Are Shifts of Attention also Adaptable?.- 2.10 Might Attention Provide an Error Signal to Saccade-Gain Adaptation?.- 3 Contrast Gain, Area Summation and Temporal Tuning in Primate Visual Cortex.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Gain Control.- 3.3 Contrast-Gain Control.- 3.4 Beyond the Classical Receptive Field.- 3.5 Area Summation and Contrast.- 3.6 Temporal Tuning and Contrast.- 3.7 Temporal Tuning and Contrast in V1.- 3.8 Discussion.- 4 Global Processes in Form Vision and Their Relationship to Spatial Attention.- 4.1 Introduction to the Ventral Visual Pathway.- 4.2 Components of Intermediate Form Analysis.- 4.3 Changing Views of V4.- 4.4 Evidence for Global Orientation Pooling in Human Vision.- 4.5 Neural Model for Configurai Units.- 4.6 Configural Units and Receptive Field Size.- 4.7 Evidence Pointing to Configurai Units in V4 in the Human Brain.- 4.8 Application of V4 Model Units to Faces.- 4.9 Selective Attention.- 4.10 Summary and Overview.- 5 Visual Attention: The Active Vision Perspective.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Active Vision.- 5.3 Reading.- 5.4 Scenes and Objects.- 5.5 Search.- 5.6 Rethinking Covert Attention.- 5.7 Conclusion.- 6 Complexity, Vision, and Attention.- 6.1 What Is Computational Complexity?.- 6.1.1 Some basic definitions.- 6.1.2 Dealing with NP-completeness.- 6.1.3 Vision and NP-completeness.- 6.2 Can Perception Be Modeled Computationally?.- 6.3 Visual Search.- 6.3.1 Definition.- 6.3.2 Theory.- 6.3.3 Implications.- 6.4 Complexity Level Analysis of Vision.- 6.5 The Selective-Tuning Model of Visual Attention.- 6.6 Conclusions.- 7 Motion-Disparity Interaction and the Scaling of Stereoscopic Disparity.- 7.1 Cue Combination in Depth Perception.- 7.2 Depth Scaling.- 7.2.1 Failures of depth constancy with stereo.- 7.2.2 Distance scaling of size, shape, and depth.- 7.3 Stereomotion Interaction for Depth Scaling.- 7.3.1 Why combine stereo and motion?.- 7.3.2 Evidence with a single object.- 7.3.3 Two neighboring objects.- 7.3.4 Two objects and alternative computations.- 7.3.5 Two objects at unequal distances.- 7.4 Summary.- 8 Signal Detection and Attention in Systems Governed By Multiplicative Noise.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Signal Detection Theory for Ideal and Non-ideal Observers.- 8.2.1 Overview of ideal observer analysis.- 8.2.2 The concept of probability summation.- 8.2.3 Attentional summation in 2AFC experiments derives from the difference distribution.- 8.2.4 2AFC attentional summation with uncertainty within a fixed attention window.- 8.3 Distraction Theory.- 8.4 Effects of Multiplicative Noise.- 8.4.1 Multiplicative noise makes the psychometric function shallower.- 8.4.2 Dramatic probability summation with multiplicative noise.- 8.4.3 Suprabehavioral neural sensitivity and its implications for attentional selection.- 8.4.4 Fully multiplicative noise introduces psychometric saturation.- 9 Change Blindness: Implications for the Nature of Visual Attention.- 9.1 Visual Attention: Role in Scene Perception.- 9.1.1 Change blindness.- 9.1.2 Coherence theory.- 9.1.3 Virtual representation.- 9.2 Visual Attention: Mechanisms.- 9.2.1 Methodology.- 9.2.2 Experimental results: Capacity.- 9.2.3 Implications for attentional mechanisms.- 9.3 Concluding Remarks.- 10 The Role of Expectations in Change Detection and Attentional Capture.- 10.1 Change Blindness.- 10.1.1 The intentional approach.- 10.1.2 The incidental approach.- 10.1.3 Summary.- 10.2 Attentional Capture.- 10.2.1 The intentional approach.- 10.2.2 The incidental approach.- 10.2.3 Implications.- 10.3 Conclusions.- 11 Attention, Eye Movements, and Neurons: Linking Physiology and Behavior.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Attention and Saccades.- 11.3 Frontal Eye Field.- 11.4 Bottom-Up Influences on Visual Selection.- 11.5 Top-Down Influences on Visual Selection.- 11.6 Conclusions.- 12 Vision and Action in Virtual Environments: Modern Psychophysics in Spatial Cognition Research.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Biological Cybernetics.- 12.3 Enabling Technologies.- 12.4 Stimulus Control.- 12.5 Stimulus Relevance.- 12.6 Spatial Cognition in VEs.- 12.7 Concluding Remarks.- 13 Selective Feature-Based Attention Directed to a Pair of Lines: Psychophysical Evidence and a Psychophysical Model.- 13.1 Does the Visual System Contain Long-Distance Comparators with Orthogonal Orientation Difference and Mean-Orientation Labels?.- 13.2 Does the Visual System Contain Long Distance Comparators Whose Outputs Carry Orthogonal Mean-Location and Separation Labels?.- 13.3 Does the Visual System Contain Long-Distance Comparator Mechanisms Whose Outputs Carry Orthogonal Orientation Difference, Mean Orientation, Mean Location and Separation Labels?.- 13.4 How Do Discrimination Thresholds for Orientation Difference, Mean Orientation, Separation, and Relative Mean Location Vary as a Function of Contrast?.- 13.5 Attentional Implications and a Psychophysical Model.- 13.5.1 Long-distance comparators whose outputs signal orthogonally four stimulus attributes.- 13.5.2 Possible role of long-distance comparators in other psychophysical findings.- 13.5.3 Possible role of long-distance comparators in everyday vision.- 13.5.4 Attentional implications.- 14 Thoughts on Change Blindness.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Thoughts on Normal Viewing: Where and What.- 14.2.1 Comments on the central/marginal interest distinction.- 14.2.2 Locations, objects, or aspects?.- 14.2.3 Looking without seeing.- 14.3 The “Where” and “What” Components of Change Detection.- 14.3.1 Transients tell “where”.- 14.3.2 Memory tells “what”.- 14.3.3 A counterintuitive prediction for change blindness in normal viewing.- 14.4 Thoughts on Disruptions.- 14.4.1 Transients as masks and transients as distractors.- 14.4.2 Measuring diversion with the mudsplash experiment.- 14.4.3 The (critical?) number of diversions.- 14.4.4 Proximity of the transient.- 14.4,5 More questions on diversions.- 14.4.6 A transient pop-out tasks.- 14.4.7 Does local masking interfere with the “what” component?.- 14.4.8 Prediction for very slow changes.- 14.4.9 Estimating the “what” component of change detection using the masking rectangle experiment.- 14.5 Other Issues Concerning the Theory.- 14.5.1 A prediction for the moment of change detection.- 14.5.2 A prediction: seeing illusory appearances.- 14.5.3 A special role for layout?.- 14.5.4 Implicit knowledge of changes?.- 14.5.5 Other frameworks for explaining change blindness.- 14.5.6 Relation to early literature on partial report.- 14.6 Conclusion.- Author Index.