Magnetite Biomineralization and Magnetoreception in Organisms

I. Introduction and Background.- 1 • Iron Biomineralization: A Geobiological Perspective.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Biological Aspects of Iron Mineralization.- 3. Biological Functions of Iron Biomineralization.- 4. Geological Aspects of Biogenic Fe Oxides and Sulfides.- References.- 2 • Ferrimagnetic Properties of Magnetite.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Data.- 3. Bulk Properties.- 4. Magnetic Domain States.- 5. Remanent Magnetizations.- 6. Magnetic Granulometry.- References.- 3 • The Geomagnetic Field: Its Nature, History, and Biological Relevance.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Main Geomagnetic Field.- 3. The Field of External Origin.- References.- II. Experimental Techniques and Instrumentation.- 4 • An Introduction to the Use of SQUID Magnetometers in Biomagnetism.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Operating Principles of SQUIDs.- 3. Cryogenics.- 4. Instrument Configurations.- 5. Applications of SQUID Magnetometers in Biomagnetism.- 6. Conclusions.- References.- 5 • Detection, Extraction, and Characterization of Biogenic Magnetite.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Magnetometry Studies.- 3. Extraction and Characterization of Biogenic Magnetite.- 4. Discussion.- 5. Summary.- References.- 6 • Studying Mineral Particulates of Biogenic Origin by Transmission Electron Microscopy and Electron Diffraction: Some Guidelines and Suggestions.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Sample Preparation for Electron Microscopy.- 3. Studying the Sample in the Microscope.- 4. Analysis of Electron Diffraction Powder Patterns.- 5. Conclusions.- Selected References.- 7 • The Cellular Localization of Particulate Iron.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Anatomical Techniques.- 3. An Example: The Bumblebee.- 4. Conclusions.- References.- 8 • Large-Volume, Magnetically Shielded Room: A New Design and Material.- 1. Introduction.- 2. General Principles of Electric and Magnetic Shielding.- 3. Practical Techniques for Building Magnetically Shielded Rooms.- 4. Three Specific Examples.- 5. Summary.- References.- III. Magnetoreception: Theoretical Considerations.- 9 • Limits to Induction-Based Magnetoreception.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Noise and General Considerations.- 3. The Induction Magnetoreception Organ.- 4. Conclusion.- 5. Addendum: A Comment on Navigation.- References.- 10 • Energetics and Sensitivity Considerations of Ferromagnetic Magnetoreceptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Energy Considerations.- 3. Response Times.- 4. Sensitivity to Field Changes.- 5. Other Types of Receptors.- 6. Tests of the Hypothesis.- References.- 11 • Particle-Size Considerations for Magnetite-Based Magnetoreceptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Thermally Driven Variance Model of Magnetic Intensity Reception.- 3. Discussion.- 4. Summary.- References.- 12 • Are Animal Maps Magnetic?.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Compass Sense.- 3. The Map Sense.- 4. Problems with Magnetic Maps.- 5. Future Research.- References.- IV. Magnetoreception and Magnetic Minerals in Living Organisms.- 13 • Mössbauer Spectroscopy of Iron Biomineralization Products in Magnetotactic Bacteria.- 1. Introduction to Mössbauer Spectroscopy.- 2. Application of Mössbauer Spectroscopy to Magnetotactic Bacteria.- References.- 14 • Magnetotactic Microorganisms Found in Muds from Rio de Janeiro: A General View.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Geomagnetic Field.- 3. Results.- 4. Conclusions.- References.- 15 • Structure, Morphology, and Crystal Growth of Bacterial Magnetite.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Instrumentation: High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy.- 3. Materials and Methods.- 4. Results.- 5. Discussion: Bioprecipitation of Bacterial Magnetite.- 6. Conclusions.- References.- 16 • Biomineralization Processes of the Radula Teeth of Chitons.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Materials and Methods.- 3. Anatomy and Operation of the Radula Apparatus.- 4. Anatomy of the Radula Sac.- 5. Blood Chemistry.- 6. The Ultrastructure of the Mineralization Zone.- 7. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 17 • Magnetic Remanence and Response to Magnetic Fields in Crustacea.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Experimental Studies.- 3. Discussion.- 4. Summary.- References.- 18 • Magnetic Field Sensitivity in Honeybees.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Magnetic Fields Cause Misdirection in the Waggle Dance.- 3. Magnetically Oriented Horizontal Dances.- 4. Magnetic Orientation of Comb-Building.- 5. Magnetic Fields and Orientation in Time.- 6. The Magnetic Receptor System.- 7. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 19 • Magnetic Butterflies: A Case Study of the Monarch (Lepidoptera, Danaidae).- 1. Introduction.- 2. Natural History of the Monarch Butterfly.- 3. Materials and Methods.- 4. Induced Magnetization.- 5. Ontogeny of Magnetic Mineralization.- 6. Intraspecific and Interspecific Variation.- 7. Attempts to Characterize the Magnetic Mineralogy.- 8. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 20 • Magnetoreception and Biomineralization of Magnetite: Fish.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Magnetic Sensitivity in Yellowfin Tuna.- 3. Detection of Magnetic Material in Fish.- 4. Characterization of the Magnetic Material.- 5. Identification and Analysis of the Magnetic Material.- 6. Discussion.- References.- 21 • Magnetoreception and Biomineralization of Magnetite in Amphibians and Reptiles.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Amphibians.- 3. Reptiles.- 4. Conclusion.- References.- 22 • Avian Navigation, Geomagnetic Field Sensitivity, and Biogenic Magnetite.- 1. The Sensory Basis of Bird Navigation.- 2. Orientation Experiments with Homing Pigeons.- 3. Orientation Experiments with Migratory Birds.- 4. Effects of Small Magnetic Field Changes on Navigation: The Possibility of a Geomagnetic Map.- 5. Laboratory Attempts to Measure Avian Magnetic Field Sensitivity.- 6. Magnetite in Birds and Possible Mechanisms of Magnetic Field Sensitivity.- References.- 23 • Magnetic Remanence in Bats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 24 • Magnetoreception and Biomineralization of Magnetite in Cetaceans.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Behavioral Studies.- 3. Anatomical Studies.- 4. Conclusion.- References.- 25 • Magnetoreception and the Search for Magnetic Material in Rodents.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Influence of Magnetic Fields on Physiology.- 3. Magnetoreception.- 4. The Search for the Magnetoreceptor.- 5. Summary.- References.- V. Human Magnetoreception: An Editorial Introduction.- 26 • Magnetoreception by Man and Other Primates.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Physiological Responses to Changes in the Ambient Magnetic Field.- 3. Magnetoreception.- 4. Magnetoreceptors?.- 5. Discussion.- 6. Summary.- References.- 27 • Statistical and Methodological Critique of Baker’s Chapter.- 1. Statistics in General.- 2. “Chair” Experiments Results Section.- 3. Princeton Data Do Not Support Baker.- 4. Magnets vs. Controls for Baker’s Experiments.- 5. Magnets vs. Controls for K-6.- 6. Physiology of Magnetoreceptors.- 7. Summary.- References.- 28 • Human Navigation: Attempts to Replicate Baker’s Displacement Experiment.- 29 • Human Homing Orientation: Critique and Alternative Hypotheses.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Bus Tests Conducted at Ithaca, New York.- 3. Oriented Distributions from “Random” Data.- References.- Notes.- Reply to Baker.- 30 • Absence of Human Homing Ability as Measured by Displacement Experiments.- 31 • A Study of the Homeward Orientation of Visually Handicapped Humans.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 32 • An Attempt to Replicate the Spinning Chair Experiment.- 33 • A Cautionary Note on Magnetoreception in Dowsers.- 34 • Human Navigation: A Summary of American Data and Interpretation.- 1. The American Data.- 2. The American Criticisms.- 3. Concluding Remarks.- References.- VI. Biogenic Magnetite in the Fossil Record.- 35 • A Search for Bacterial Magnetite in the Sediments of Eel Marsh, Woods Hole, Massachusetts.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Bacterial Magnetite.- 3. Methods.- 4. Results.- 5. Discussion.- Appendix 1: Eel Marsh NRM and Saturation Magnetization Data.- Appendix 2: Description of Computer Procedure Used to Make Stability Field Diagram 8a.- References.- 36 • Possible Biogenic Magnetite Fossils from the Late Miocene Potamida Clays of Crete.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Samples.- 3. Laboratory Extraction of Magnetite.- 4. Magnetic Studies.- 5. Size and Shape Distribution of Magnetite.- 6. Origin of Magnetite.- 7. Conclusion and Applications.- References.