Food Hygiene, Microbiology and HACCP

1 Fundamental Principles of Microbiology.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Characterisitics of Bacteria.- 1.2.1 Shape and size.- 1.2.2 Reproduction.- 1.2.3 Bacterial structure.- 1.2.4 Gram reaction.- 1.3 Types of Bacteria Important in Foods.- 1.3.1 Gram negative bacteria.- 1.3.2 Gram positive bacteria.- 1.4 Characteristics of Fungi.- 1.4.1 Moulds.- 1.4.2 Yeasts.- 1.5 Characteristics of Viruses and Prions.- 1.6 The Growth Curve of Bacteria.- 1.7 Factors Influencing Bacterial Growth.- 1.7.1 Nutrients.- 1.7.2 Temperature.- 1.7.3 Moisture.- 1.7.4 Oxygen.- 1.7.5 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH).- 1.7.6 Inhibitory substances.- References.- 2 Food Poisoning and Other Food-borne Hazards.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Incidence of Food Poisoning.- 2.2.1 The bacteria responsible.- 2.2.2 Type of food.- 2.3 Bacterial Food Poisoning.- 2.3.1 Salmonellas.- 2.3.2 Enteritis due to Campylobacter spp.- 2.3.3 Staphylococcus aureus.- 2.3.4 Bacillus cereus.- 2.3.5 Vibrio parahaemolyticus.- 2.3.6 Botulism.- 2.3.7 Listeriosis.- 2.3.8 Clostridium perfringens.- 2.3.9 Escherichia coli.- 2.3.10 Miscellaneous bacterial food poisoning and new variant CJD.- 2.4 Mycotoxicoses.- 2.4.1 Aflatoxins.- 2.4.2 Miscellaneous mycotoxins.- 2.5 Virus Food Poisoning.- 2.5.1 Small round structured viruses (SRSV).- 2.5.2 Infective hepatitis.- 2.5.3 Rotaviruses.- 2.5.4 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and new variant CJD.- 2.5.5 General control measures.- 2.6 Animal Toxins and Parasitic Infections.- 2.6.1 Animals that are naturally toxic to man.- 2.6.2 Secondary toxicity.- 2.6.3 Parasitic infections.- 2.7 Poisonous Plants.- 2.8 Chemical Poisoning.- References.- 3 Food Spoilage.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Spoilage of Fresh Meats.- 3.2.1 Contamination of tissues by microorganisms.- 3.2.2 Control of microbial growth.- 3.2.3 Effect of storage temperature.- 3.2.4 Chemical changes produced by bacteria in chilled meats.- 3.3 Spoilage of Cured Meats.- 3.3.1 Curing agents.- 3.3.2 The curing process.- 3.3.3 The microbiology and spoilage of bacon and ham.- 3.4 Spoilage of Vacuum-Packed Meats.- 3.4.1 Types of packaging materials.- 3.4.2 Influence of packaging materials on the microbiological flora.- 3.4.3 Spoilage of packed fresh meats.- 3.4.4 Spoilage of vacuum-packed bacon.- 3.4.5 Modified atmospheric packaging.- 3.4.6 Sous vide.- 3.5 Spoilage of Poultry.- 3.5.1 Effects of processing on the microbiological flora.- 3.5.2 Spoilage of chickens held at chill temperatures.- 3.6 Spoilage of Fish and Shellfish.- 3.6.1 Bacteriology of the newly caught fish.- 3.6.2 The effect of initial processing and storage in ice on board ship.- 3.6.3 The effect of handling ashore.- 3.6.4 Chemical changes induced by bacteria in fish.- 3.6.5 Salted fish.- 3.6.6 Smoked fish.- 3.6.7 Packaged fish.- 3.6.8 Shellfish.- 3.7 Dairy Products.- 3.7.1 Milk.- 3.7.2 Butter.- 3.7.3 Cheese.- 3.7.4 Yoghurt.- 3.8 Eggs and Egg Products.- 3.8.1 The chicken’s egg and its spoilage.- 3.8.2 Egg products.- 3.9 Vegetables and Fruits.- 3.9.1 Spoilage by fungi.- 3.9.2 Spoilage by bacteria.- 3.9.3 Control of microbial spoilage.- 3.10 Cereal Based Products.- 3.11 Beer.- 3.12 Wine.- 3.13 Sauerkraut.- 3.14 Canned Foods.- 3.14.1 Leaker spoilage.- 3.14.2 Spoilage due to inadequate heat treatment.- 3.15 Frozen Foods.- 3.15.1 Influence of sub-zero temperatures on microorganisms.- 3.15.2 Factors affecting viability of microorganisms during freezing.- 3.15.3 Effect of cold storage.- 3.15.4 Freezing injury to cells.- 3.15.5 Thawed foods and their spoilage.- 3.16 Dehydrated Foods.- 3.16.1 Methods of drying.- 3.16.2 Influence of drying and freeze drying on microorganisms.- 3.16.3 Storage stability of dried foods.- 3.16.4 Rehydration.- 3.16.5 Intermediate moisture foods.- 3.17 Irradiated Foods 13.- 3.17.1 Types of radiation.- 3.17.2 Effect of radiation on microorganisms.- 3.17.3 High dose applicatons.- 3.17.4 Low dose applications and the spoilage of foods so treated.- References.- 4 Microbiological Examining Methods.- 4.1 The Rational of Microbiological Testing.- 4.2 Sampling.- 4.2.1 Sampling plan.- 4.2.2 The representative sample.- 4.2.3 Sampling techniques.- 4.2.4 Treatment of sample.- 4.2.5 Examination methods.- 4.3 Microbiological Test Procedures.- 4.3.1 Total viable count.- 4.3.2 Viable but nonculturable bacteria.- 4.4 Conventional Methods.- 4.4.1 Indicator organisms.- 4.4.2 Food poisoning bacteria.- 4.4.3 Food spoilage organisms.- 4.4.4 Canned foods.- 4.4.5 Frozen and dehydrated food.- 4.5 Rapid Detection Techniques.- 4.5.1 Separation and concentration techniques.- 4.5.2 Impedance microbiology.- 4.5.3 Enzyme immunoassays and latex agglutination tests.- 4.5.4 Nucleic acid probes and PCR.- 4.5.5 ATP bioluminescence techniques and hygiene monitoring.- 4.5.6 Lux gene technology.- 4.5.7 Flow cytometry.- 4.5.8 Miscellaneous tests.- 4.6 Microbiological Criteria and Specifications.- References.- 5 Factory Design and Construction.- 5.1 The Factory Site.- 5.2 General Design Principles and Structural Techniques.- 5.2.1 Roofing and lighting.- 5.3 Construction of Ceilings, Walls and Floors.- 5.3.1 Ceilings and overhead fittings.- 5.3.2 Walls.- 5.3.3 Floors and drains.- 5.4 Ventilation and Air Conditioning.- 5.5 Noise and Vibration.- 6 Factory Layout.- 6.1 Handling of Food Materials.- 6.1.1 Work flow patterns and plant layout.- 6.2 Layout and Integration of Different Work Areas.- 6.2.1 Raw materials: reception.- 6.2.2 Raw materials: storage.- 6.2.3 Processing area.- 6.2.4 Finished product storage.- 6.2.5 Employee service and welfare areas.- 6.2.6 Offices and general administration buildings.- 6.2.7 Laboratories.- 6.2.8 Machine maintenance and storage areas.- 6.2.9 Integration of the principal areas of work.- Reference.- 7 Design of Food Processing Equipment.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Legislation.- 7.3 Construction Materials.- 7.3.1 General requirements.- 7.3.2 Stainless steel.- 7.3.3 Corrosion of stainless steel.- 7.3.4 Iron and mild steel.- 7.3.5 Copper and its alloys.- 7.3.6 Miscellaneous metals.- 7.3.7 Plastics.- 7.3.8 Rubber, glass and wood.- 7.3.9 Antimicrobial worksurfaces.- 7.4 Growth ‘Pockets’.- 7.5 Ease of Dismantling and Re-assembly of Equipment.- 7.6 Accessibility and the Supporting Framework.- 7.7 External Surfaces.- 7.8 Design Features for Individual Items of Equipment.- 7.8.1 Tanks, vats, etc.- 7.8.2 Pumps.- 7.8.3 Valves.- 7.8.4 Pipes.- 7.8.5 Steam and air lines.- 7.8.6 Motors.- 7.8.7 Size reduction equipment.- 7.8.8 Mixers.- 7.8.9 Forming and assembly equipment.- 7.8.10 Mechanical separators.- 7.8.11 Equipment transferring solid foods.- 7.8.12 Heating equipment.- 7.8.13 Safety.- References.- 8 HACCP and Product Quality.- 8.1 HACCP and Quality Schemes.- 8.2 Origins of HACCP.- 8.3 Objectives of HACCP.- 8.4 The Seven Principles of HACCP.- 8.4.1 Principle 1.- 8.4.2 Principle 2.- 8.4.3 Principle 3.- 8.4.4 Principle 4.- 8.4.5 Principle 5.- 8.4.6 Principle 6.- 8.4.7 Principle 7.- 8.5 HACCP-like Implementation.- 8.6 Generic HACCP.- 8.6.1 CCP for refrigerated foods.- 8.6.2 CCP for whole young chickens.- 8.7 Principle 1 — Hazard Analysis.- 8.7.1 Microbial hazards.- 8.7.2 Extrinsic parameters.- 8.8 Principle 2 — Critical Control Points.- 8.8.1 The CCP decision tree.- 8.8.2 Trends in CCP implementation.- 8.9 Critical Limits.- 8.9.1 Critical limits during a cooking process.- 8.10 ATP-bioluminescence and HACCP Monitoring.- 8.11 End-product Testing and Microbiological Criteria.- 8.11.1 Verification.- 8.11.2 Record keeping.- 8.11.3 Dairy industry.- 8.11.4 Meat industry.- 8.11.5 Seafoods industry.- 8.11.6 Catering, cooked—chilled foods, sous-vide.- 8.12 Problems of Implementation.- 8.13 HACCP and Predictive Microbiology.- 8.14 Risk Assessment.- 8.15 Quality Assurance and Quality Control.- 8.16 Raw Material Control.- 8.16.1 Inspection.- 8.16.2 Ambient temperature storage.- 8.16.3 Chill storage.- 8.16.4 Deep frozen storage.- 8.16.5 Storage zones.- 8.17 Process Control.- 8.17.1 Process temperature/time relationships.- 8.17.2 Design of and critical points in pork pie processing.- 8.17.3 Waste materials.- 8.17.4 Maintenance of processing lines.- 8.18 Packaging.- 8.18.1 Required properties of packaging materials.- 8.18.2 Main types of packaging materials and containers.- 8.18.3 Microbiological aspects of packaging materials.- 8.18.4 Storage of packaging materials.- 8.19 Finished Product Storage.- 8.20 Transport and Distribution.- 8.21 Total Quality Management and Longitudinal Integrated Safety Assurance.- References.- 9 Cleaning and Disinfection: Methods.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Definitions.- 9.3 Types of Soil.- 9.4 Removal of Gross Soil.- 9.5 Detergents.- 9.5.1 Desirable properties.- 9.5.2 Classifications of detergents.- 9.5.3 Detergent formulation.- 9.5.4 Factors affecting efficiency of detergents.- 9.6 Chemical Disinfectants.- 9.6.1 Desirable properties.- 9.6.2 Classification of disinfectants.- 9.6.3 Evaluation of disinfectants.- 9.7 Use of Heat.- 9.7.1 Steam.- 9.7.2 Hot water.- 9.8 Dry Cleaning.- 9.9 Cleaning-in-Place (CIP).- 9.9.1 CIP systems.- 9.9.2 Spraying devices.- 9.9.3 Benefits of CIP.- 9.10 Mechanical Aids for Cleaning.- 9.10.1 Pressurized steam.- 9.10.2 Hydraulic devices.- 9.10.3 Compressed air.- 9.10.4 Ultrasonics.- 9.10.5 Portable cleaning machines.- 9.10.6 Fixed cleaning systems.- 9.11 Foam Cleaning.- 9.12 Cleaning Small Equipment.- 9.13 Paper and Fabric Wipers.- References.- 10 Cleaning and Disinfection: Practical Application.- 10.1 Aims.- 10.2 Cleaning Schedules.- 10.3 Biofilms.- 10.4 Use of Labour.- 10.5 The Role of Management.- 10.6 Miscellaneous Problems Encountered.- 10.7 Assessment of Cleaning Efficiency.- References.- 11 Hygiene and Training of Personnel.- 11.1 Hand Washing and Care of the Hands.- 11.1.1 Personal hygiene.- 11.1.2 Bactericidal soaps and creams.- 11.1.3 Use of gloves.- 11.2 Practices, Good and Bad.- 11.2.1 Clothing and jewellery.- 11.2.2 Hair.- 11.2.3 Other bad practices.- 11.3 Health Supervision.- 11.3.1 Pre-employment medical examination.- 11.3.2 Health monitoring of employees.- 11.4 Induction and In-Service Training.- References.- 12 World-wide Food Safety Programmes and Legislation.- 12.1 World-wide Food Safety Programmes.- 12.1.1 World-wide food poisoning outbreaks.- 12.1.2 Salm-Net.- 12.1.3 Antibiotic resistance.- 12.2 Legislation.- 12.3 Food Legislation Within the European Community.- 12.3.1 The legislative process.- 12.3.2 Microbiological criteria for foods.- 12.3.3 Examples of EC food legislation.- 12.4 International Food Standards.- 12.4.1 International implementation of HACCP concept.- 12.5 Food Hygiene and Safety Legislation in the UK.- 12.5.1 The Food Safety Act (1990).- 12.5.2 Codes of Practice.- 12.5.3 Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) 1995.- 12.5.4 Food Safety (Temperature)Regulations 1995.- 12.5.5 Dairy Products (Hygiene) Regulations 1995.- 12.5.6 Food Standards Agency.- 12.5.7 Ice-Cream (Heat Treatment) Regulations (1959); Liquid Egg (Pasteurization) Regulations (1963).- 12.6 Food Legislation In Some European Countries.- 12.6.1 France.- 12.6.2 Italy.- 12.6.3 Germany.- 12.6.4 Netherlands.- 12.6.5 Food Hygiene Directive (93/43/EEC) implementation.- 12.7 Food Legislation in the USA.- 12.7.1 The GMP regulations.- 12.7.2 Regulations concerning specific foods.- 12.7.3 Microbiological standards in the USA.- 12.8 Food Legislation in Japan and Korea.- 12.8.1 Microbiological Standards in Japan and Korea.- 12.9 Concluding Remarks.- References.