Parental Care in Mammals

1 Origins of Parental Care.- 1. Parental Care Is Widespread.- 2. Factors Influencing Parental Care Strategy.- 2.1. r and K Selection.- 2.2. Phyletic Continuity and Morphological Constraints.- 3. Patterns of Parenting.- 4. Adaptiveness and Patterns of Parental Care.- References.- 2 Factors Governing the Onset and Maintenance of Maternal Behavior among Nonprimate Mammals: The Role of Hormonal and Nonhormonal Factors.- 1. Onset of Maternal Behavior.- 1.1. Hormonal Regulation of Pregnancy.- 1.2. Hormonal Stimulation of Maternal Behavior.- 2. The Regulation of Postpartum Maternal Behavior.- 3. Maternal Behavior in Nonpregnant Females.- 4. Transition in the Regulation of Maternal Behavior between the Onset and Maintenance Phases.- 5. Maternal Aggression: Pre- and Postpartum Regulation.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 3 Parental Contributions to the Development of Their Offspring.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Strategies for Demonstrating Long-Term Parental Effects on Development of Young.- 2.1. Maternal Deprivation.- 2.2. Selective Breeding.- 2.3. Stressed Parents.- 2.4. Premature Separation.- 2.5. Interspecies Parenting.- 2.6. Effects Visited upon Subsequent Generations.- 3. The Prenatal Relationship.- 4. The Postnatal Relationship.- 4.1. Facial Communication in Blind Infants.- 4.2. Levels of Stimulation and Infant Behavioral Arousal.- 4.3. Regulation of Rhythmic Functions of the Infant.- 4.4. Regulation of the Onset of Puberty.- 4.5. Regulation of Infant Autonomic Function.- 4.6. Regulation of Brain Enzymes and Growth.- 5. Implications for Aberrant Development.- 5.1. Maternal Separation Revisited.- 5.2. Self-Correcting Tendencies.- 6. Conclusion.- References.- 4 Offspring Effects upon Parents.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Phylogenesis: Inclusive Fitness and Parental Investment.- 2.1. Inclusive Fitness and the Cost of Parental Investment.- 2.2. Sex Differences in Parental Responsiveness.- 3. Function: Social Consequences and Ecological Correlates of Parenting.- 3.1. Kin, the “Con,” and Contractual Obligations.- 3.2. Ecological and Social Correlates.- 4. Changes during the Life Cycle.- 4.1. Age-Related Changes.- 4.2. Prior Experience.- 5. Mechanisms: Effects of Offspring on Parental Responsiveness.- 5.1. The Setting as a Determinant of Offspring Effects.- 5.2. Effects of Offspring upon Parental State.- 5.3. Comment.- 6. Stimulus Effects of Offspring.- 6.1. Age- and Sex-Related Signals Controlling Parenting.- 6.2. Analysis According to Sensory Modality.- 7. Filial Behavior.- References.- 5 Maternal Aggression in Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Some Naturalistic Observations of Maternal Aggression.- 3. Laboratory Studies of Maternal Aggression.- 3.1. Topography of Maternal Aggression.- 3.2. Stimuli Eliciting Maternal Aggression.- 3.3. Experiential Influences on Maternal Aggression.- 3.4. Psychobiological Determinants of Mater Aggression.- 4. A Psychobiological Model of Maternal Aggression in the Mouse.- 4.1. Substrate Preparation Phase (Conception to Parturition).- 4.2. Postpartum Initiation Phase (Parturition to Postpartum Day 2).- 4.3. Postpartum Maintenance Phase (Postpartum Days 2-21).- 5. Relationship to Defense of Young and Population Dynamics.- 6. General Conclusions.- References.- 6 The Ecology of Weaning: Parasitism and the Achievement of Independence by Altricial Mammals.- 1. An Overview of Weaning.- 1.1. Mother-Young Interaction.- 1.2. Development of Behavior.- 1.3. Parasitism: An Analogy to the Life Strategy of the Altricial Juvenile Mammal.- 2. The Rat Pup as Parasite.- 2.1. The Environment Provided by the Host: Parental Investment by the Dam.- 2.2. The Rat Pup as Obligate, Passive Ectoparasite—Day 5 Postpartum.- 2.3. The Rat Pup as Facultative, Active Ectoparasite—Day 18 Postpartum.- 2.4. The Juvenile Rat as Commensal—Day 40 Postpartum.- 3. Conclusion.- References.- 7 Parent and Infant Attachment in Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. What is Attachment?.- 2.1. Criteria of Attachment.- 3. Attachment and Separation.- 4. Why Form an Attachment?.- 4.1. Function of Attachment.- 5. Where Is Attachment Found?.- 5.1. Solitary Social Structure.- 5.2. Family.- 5.3. Extended Family.- 5.4. Matriarchy.- 5.5. Harem.- 5.6. Allied Females (Unrelated).- 5.7. Multimale/Multifemale Groups.- 5.8. Comment on a Scheme.- 6. Mechanisms of Parent and Infant Attachment: Selected Examples.- 6.1. Rodents.- 6.2. Primates.- 6.3. Ungulates.- 6.4. Mechanisms of Parent and Infant Attachment: Summary.- 7. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 Mammalian Sibling Interactions: Genes, Facilitative Environments, and the Coefficient of Familiarity.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Conditions Favoring Sibling Interaction.- 2.1. Litter Size and Mortalityt.- 2.2. Altricial versus Precocial Young.- 2.3. Intact Litters.- 2.4. “Closed” Social Groups.- 3. Sibling Recognition and the Coefficient of Familiarity: Does $$\overline {{X_r}} = 1/2\bar X$$ Anything?.- 3.1. The f Factor and Sibling Recognition.- 3.2. Probabilistic Sibling Recognition and Some Predi Species Differences.- 3.3. Does Familiarity Breed Contempt?.- 4. What Do Siblings Do?.- 4.1. Nursing Orders.- 4.2. Social Play, Cooperation, and Play Fighting.- 4.3. Sibling Competition and “Selfishness”.- 5. Alloparental Care.- 5.1. Differential Dispersal, Individual Decisions, and Food.- 5.2. Suppressed Maturation and Reproduction.- 6. Parents and Siblings.- 6.1. How Can Parents Influence Sibling Interactions?.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- 9 The Evolution of Male Parental Investment in Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. The Definition of Male Parental Investment.- 1.2. Categories of Male Parental Investment.- 1.3. Measuring Male Parental Investment.- 1.4. The Available Data on Male Parental Investment.- 2. Results.- 2.1. What Can Male Mammals Do?.- 2.2. What Do Male Mammals Do?.- 3. Discussion.- 3.1. Phylogenetic Considerations.- 3.2. Factors That May Predispose Male Mammals to Care Young.- 3.3. The Role of Male Parental Investment in Molding the Social Organization of Species.- 4. Conclusions.- References.- 10 Primate Infant Caregiving Behavior: Origins, Consequences, and Variability with Emphasis on the Common Indian Langur Monkey.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Context of Primate Parenting Behavior: What Makes the Primates Different?.- 3. Indian Langurs: A Case Study in Maternal Care.- 3.1. Classification.- 3.2. Social Organization.- 3.3. Langur Infant-Caretaking Patterns: Who Does It?.- 3.4. Forms of Infant Tranfers.- 4. Why Allomothering.- 5. Separating Functions, Benefits, and Origins in Evolutionary Explanations.- 5.1. Levels of Explanation.- 5.2. Function, Benefit, Effects and Origins: What Are Distinctions?.- 5.3. The “Origins” of Allomothering: Ultimate Considerations.- 6. Langur Allomothering Behavior: Is It Unique?.- 7. Parental Investment: How Much Is Too Much?.- 8. Opportunism and Adaptation: Some Theoretical Considerations.- References.- 11 The Social Context of Parental Behavior: A Perspective on Primate Socialization.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Ontogeny of Specific Attachments: Establishment and Maintenance of Maternal Behavior in the Context of the Mother-Infant Bond.- 2.1. Birth.- 2.2. The Infant’s Behavior at Birth.- 2.3. Behavior of the Mother toward the Neonate.- 2.4. The Infant as a Stimulus for Caretaking.- 2.5. Establishment of the Mother-Infant Bond.- 2.6. Recognition of the Mother and Specificity of Partner Response.- 3. The Role of the Mother’s Past and Present Social History.- 3.1. Maternal Rank.- 3.2. Maternal Parity.- 3.3. Social Rearing History of the Mother.- 3.4. The Absence of the Mother: Mother-Infant Separation.- 3.5. Interspecific Variations in Maternal Care: A Congeneric Example.- 4. The Role of Other Socializing Agents.- 4.1. “Aunting”.- 4.2. Caretaking by Males.- 4.3. Peer Groups.- 4.4. Kinship Groups.- 4.5. Isolation of the Mother-Infant Dyad.- 5. Recapitulation: Infant Socialization and an Analysis of the “Adequate Social Rearing Environment”.- References.