Food Flavourings

1 Introduction.- 1.1 General Introduction.- 1.1.1 The U.S. Flavour Industry.- 1.1.2 The U.K. Flavour Industry.- 1.1.3 The European Flavour Industry.- 1.1.4 The Far East Flavour Industry.- 1.1.5 Classification of Flavour Companies.- 1.1.6 Historical Development.- 1.2 Markets.- 1.2.1 Types of Market.- 1.2.2 Market Locations.- 1.2.3 New Entrants.- 1.3 Products.- 1.3.1 Substitute Products.- 1.3.2 Matching Competitors’ Products.- 1.3.3 Matching a Natural Product.- 1.4 Emerging Opportunities.- 1.4.1 General.- 1.4.2 Biotechnology.- 1.4.3 Process Flavourings.- 1.4.4 Technological Need.- 1.4.5 Global Aspects of Flavourings.- 1.5 The Future.- 1.6 Legislation.- 1.6.1 United States of America.- 1.6.2 The Europan Scene.- 1.7 The European Flavour Directive.- 1.7.1 Article.- 1.7.2 Article.- 1.7.3 Article.- 1.7.4 Article.- 1.7.5 Article.- 1.7.6 Article.- 1.7.7 Annexes.- 1.8 Council Decision.- 2 Essential Oils.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 The Production of Essential Oils.- 2.2.1 Steam Distillation.- 2.2.2 Water Distillation.- 2.2.3 Other Distillation Methods.- 2.2.4 Expression of oils.- 2.2.5 Extraction.- 2.3 Further Processing of Essential Oils.- 2.3.1 Rectification.- 2.3.2 Washed Oils.- 2.3.3 Oil Quality.- 2.4 The Uses of Essential Oils.- 2.5 The Composition of Essential Oils.- 2.5.1 Bergamot Oil.- 2.5.2 Cassia Oil.- 2.5.3 Cinnamon Oil.- 2.5.4 Clove Oil.- 2.5.5 Coriander Oil.- 2.5.6 Cornmint Oil.- 2.5.7 Dill Oil.- 2.5.8 Eucalyptus Oil.- 2.5.9 Garlic Oil.- 2.5.10 Ginger Oil.- 2.5.11 Grapefruit Oil.- 2.5.12 Lemon Oil.- 2.5.13 Lemongrass Oil.- 2.5.14 Lime Oil.- 2.5.15 Litsea Cubeba Oil.- 2.5.16 Nutmeg Oil.- 2.5.17 Sweet Orange Oil.- 2.5.18 Peppermint Oil.- 2.5.19 Rose Oil.- 2.5.20 Rosemary Oil.- 2.5.21 Spearmint Oil.- 2.5.22 Star Anise Oil.- 2.5.23 Tangerine Oil.- 3 Oleoresins, Tinctures and Extracts.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.1.1 General Comments.- 3.1.2 Costs.- 3.1.3 Raw Materials and Processes.- 3.2 Plant Materials.- 3.2.1 Origin.- 3.2.2 Crop-to-Crop Variations.- 3.2.3 Storage.- 3.2.4 Yield.- 3.2.5 Degradation.- 3.2.6 Preparation of Plant Material.- 3.2.7 Vanilla Bean Curing.- 3.3 Solvents.- 3.3.1 Polarity.- 3.3.2 Boiling Point.- 3.3.3 Viscosity.- 3.3.4 Latent Heat of Evaporation.- 3.3.5 Temperature/Pressure.- 3.4 Tinctures.- 3.4.1 Water Infusions.- 3.4.2 Alcoholic Tinctures.- 3.5 Oleoresins.- 3.5.1 Solvents.- 3.5.2 Solubility.- 3.5.3 Commercial Solvent Extraction System.- 3.6 Absolutes.- 3.6.1 Solvents.- 3.7 Extraction with Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent.- 3.7.1 Introduction.- 3.7.2 Subcritical CO2.- 3.7.3 Supercritical CO2.- 3.8 Summary.- 4 Fruit Juices.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Fruit Processing.- 4.2.1 General Considerations.- 4.2.2 Soft Fruit Processing.- 4.3 Specialised Fruit Processing.- 4.3.1 Citrus.- 4.3.2 Comminuted Citrus Bases.- 4.3.3 Pineapple juice.- 4.3.4 Processes Requiring Heat.- 4.4 Products and Packaging.- 4.4.1 Frozen Juices.- 4.4.2 Aseptic Packaging.- 4.4.3 Self-Preserved Juice.- 4.4.4 Preserved Juice.- 4.4.5 Hot Pack Products.- 4.5 Product Specifications.- 4.5.1 Soluble Solids Content.- 4.5.2 Titratable Acidity.- 4.5.3 Brix/Acid Ratio.- 4.5.4 Other Specifications.- 4.5.5 Juice Adulteration.- 4.5.6 Specifications for Essence/Volatiles/Citrus Oils.- 4.6 Volatile Components of Fruit Juices.- 4.6.1 Production.- 4.6.2 Composition of Fruit Juice Volatile Fractions.- 4.7 The Uses of Fruit Juices in Flavourings.- 4.7.1 Fruit Juice Compounds.- 4.7.2 Flavourings.- 4.8 Summary.- 5 Synthetic Ingredients of Food Flavourings.- 5.1 General Aspects.- 5.1.1 Introduction, Definitions and Documentation.- 5.1.2 Flavour Generation.- 5.1.3 Flavour Analysis.- 5.1.4 Flavour Manufacture.- 5.1.5 Composition and Formulation.- 5.2 Synthetic Flavouring Ingredients.- 5.2.1 Classification.- 5.2.2 The Flavour Wheel.- 5.2.3 The Different Flavour Notes.- 5.3 Synthetic Flavour Ingredients and the Future.- 6 Beverage Flavourings and Their Applications.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Categories of Beverages.- 6.3 Types of Flavourings for Beverages.- 6.4 Methods of Extraction, Solubilisation and Concentration of Flavourings.- 6.4.1 Extraction of Coffee Flavour and Manufacture of the Instant Product.- 6.4.2 Flavourings Extracted from Harvested Fruits.- 6.4.3 Extraction and Use of Oil Soluble Flavourings.- 6.5 Beverages Based on Ginger.- 6.5.1 Manufacture of Ginger Extract.- 6.5.2 Original (Hot) Ginger Ale.- 6.5.3 American or Pale Ginger Ale.- 6.6 Formulation of Beverages.- 6.6.1 General Principles.- 6.6.2 Principal Components used in the Formulation of Beverages.- 6.6.3 Label Claims.- 6.6.4 Sweetness/Acid Ratio.- 6.6.5 Alcoholic Components.- 6.6.6 Water.- 6.6.7 Characterising Ingredients.- 6.6.8 Other Ingredients.- 6.6.9 Acidulants and Acidity Regulators.- 6.7 Summary.- 7 The Flavouring of Confectionery.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Basic Confectionery Types, Recipes, Inherent Flavours.- 7.2.1 High Boilings.- 7.2.2 Fat Boilings.- 7.2.3 Toffees and Caramels.- 7.2.4 Fudge.- 7.2.5 Fondant.- 7.2.6 Candy.- 7.2.7 Cream and Lozenge Paste.- 7.2.8 Compressed Tablets.- 7.2.9 Jellies and Gums.- 7.2.10 Chewing Gum.- 7.2.11 Panned Work.- 7.2.12 Chocolate.- 7.3 Flavours from Ingredients.- 7.4 Flavours Developed During Processing.- 7.5 Selection of Flavourings.- 8 Flavourings for Bakery and General Use.- 8.1 Ingredients.- 8.1.1 Flour.- 8.1.2 Sugars.- 8.1.3 Fats.- 8.1.4 Liquids.- 8.1.5 Gases.- 8.1.6 Other (Minor) Ingredients.- 8.2 Bakery Products.- 8.2.1 Bread.- 8.2.2 Hot Plate Goods.- 8.2.3 Morning Goods.- 8.2.4 Powder Goods.- 8.2.5 Biscuts.- 8.2.6 Cakes.- 8.2.7 Baking Process.- 8.3 Bakery Fillings.- 8.3.1 Jams and Jellies.- 8.3.2 Marshmallow.- 8.3.3 Creams.- 8.3.4 Biscuit Creams.- 8.3.5 Icings.- 8.4 Summary of Flavouring Characteristics.- 9 Dairy Flavourings.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.1.1 History of Animal Milks as a Human Food Source.- 9.1.2 The Development of Flavour in Dairy Products.- 9.1.3 Instrumental Analysis.- 9.1.4 The Development and Uses of Dairy Flavourings.- 9.2 Milk and Cream.- 9.2.1 Whole Cows Milk.- 9.2.2 Whole Milk Powder.- 9.2.3 Skimmed Milk.- 9.2.4 Sterilised Milk.- 9.2.5 UHT Milk.- 9.2.6 Evaporated and Sweetened Condensed Milk.- 9.2.7 Cream.- 9.2.8 Sterilised Cream.- 9.2.9 Clotted Cream.- 9.2.10 Casein.- 9.2.11 Whey.- 9.2.12 The Applications of Milk and Cream Flavourings.- 9.2.13 The Development of Milk and Cream Flavourings.- 9.3 Yogurt and Fermented Products.- 9.3.1 Yogurt.- 9.3.2 Other Fermented Milk Products.- 9.4 Butter.- 9.4.1 Sweet Cream Butter.- 9.4.2 Cultured Cream Butter (Lactic Butter).- 9.4.3 Ghee.- 9.4.4 The Flavour of Butter.- 9.4.5 The Uses of Butter Flavourings.- 9.4.6 Margarine and Low-Fat Spreads.- 9.4.7 The Development of Butter Flavourings.- 9.5 Cheese.- 9.5.1 The Manufacture of Cheese.- 9.5.2 Classification of Cheese Types.- 9.5.3 The Development of Flavour in Cheese.- 9.5.4 Review of a Range of Key Cheese Types.- 9.5.5 Related Products.- 9.5.6 Applications of Cheese Flavourings.- 9.5.7 The Development of Cheese Flavourings.- 9.6 Manufacturing Considerations.- 9.7 Conclusion.- 10 Process Flavourings.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.1.1 Description and Definition.- 10.1.2 History and Necessity.- 10.2 Research into Beef Flavour.- 10.2.1 Reactions of the Precursors.- 10.2.2 Evolved Volatile Compounds.- 10.3 Creating a Process Flavouring.- 10.3.1 Basic or Foundation Part of the Flavouring.- 10.3.2 The Aroma Volatiles.- 10.3.3 Enhancers, Fats, Herbs and Spices.- 10.3.4 Compounding the Complete Process Flavouring.- 10.4 Applications of Process Flavourings.- 10.4.1 Simple Mixing.- 10.4.2 Application to Outside (Dusting).- 10.4.3 Addition During Product Manufacture.- 10.5 The Safety Question.- 10.5.1 Safety of Protein Hydrolysates.- 10.5.2 Safety of Reaction Flavourings.- 10.6 Process Flavourings and the Future.- Appendices.- Appendix I: Composition of Lemon and Orange Oils.- Appendix II: Botanical Classification of Fruits.- Appendix III: I.O.F.I. Guidelines for the Production and Labelling of Process Flavourings.- References.