John E. Oliver
Springer Netherlands
1e druk, 2006
9781402048708
Encyclopedia of World Climatology
Specificaties
Paperback, 854 blz.
|
Engels
Springer Netherlands |
1e druk, 2006
ISBN13: 9781402048708
Rubricering
Onderdeel van serie
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
Levertijd ongeveer 8 werkdagen
Samenvatting
Today, given the well-publicized impacts of events such as El Niño, there is an unequaled public awareness of how climate affects the quality of life and environment. Such awareness has created an increasing demand for accurate climatological information. This information is now available in one convenient, accessible source, the Encyclopedia of World Climatology. This comprehensive volume covers all the main subfields of climatology, supplies information on climates in major continental areas, and explains the intricacies of climatic processes. The level of presentation will meet the needs of specialists, university students, and educated laypersons.
A successor to the 1986 Encyclopedia of Climatology, this compendium provides a clear explanation of current knowledge and research directions in modern climatology. This new encyclopedia emphasizes climatological developments that have evolved over the past twenty years. It offers more than 200 informative articles prepared by 150 experts on numerous subjects, ranging from standard areas of study to the latest research studies.
The relationship between climatology and both physical and social science is fully explored, as is the significance of climate for our future well-being. The information is organized for speedy access. Entries are conveniently arranged in alphabetical order, thoroughly indexed, and cross-referenced. Every entry contains useful citations to additional source materials.
The Editor
John E. Oliver is Professor Emeritus at Indiana State University. He holds a B.Sc. from London University, and a MA and Ph.D from Columbia University. He taught at Columbia University and then at Indiana State where he was formerly Chair of the Geography-Geology Department, and Assoc iate Dean, College of Arts and Sciences. He has written many books and journal articles in Climatology, Applied Climatology and Physical Geography.
Specificaties
ISBN13:9781402048708
Taal:Engels
Bindwijze:paperback
Aantal pagina's:854
Uitgever:Springer Netherlands
Druk:1
Inhoudsopgave
<P>Boundary Layer Climatology 168</P>
<P>D.S. Munro</P>
<P>Bowen Ratio 178</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Budyko, Mikhail Ivanovich 179</P>
<P>William A. Dando</P>
<P>Carbon-14 Dating 181</P>
<P>Claudio Vita-Finzi</P>
<P>Centers of Action 182</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Central America and the Caribbean, Climate of 183</P>
<P>Michael A. Taylor and Eric J. Alfaro</P>
<P>Climate Affairs 189</P>
<P>Michael H. Glantz</P>
<P>Climatic Change and Ancient Civilizations 192</P>
<P>Masatoshi Yoshino</P>
<P>Climate Change and Global Warming 199</P>
<P>Michael C. MacCracken</P>
<P>Climate Change and Human Health 209</P>
<P>Anthony J. McMichael and Rosalie E. Woodruff</P>
<P>Climate Change Impacts: Potential</P>
<P>Environmental and Societal Consequences 213</P>
<P>Michael C. MacCracken</P>
<P>Climate Classification 218</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Climate Comfort Indices 227</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Climate Data Centers 231</P>
<P>Robert Mark Simpson</P>
<P>Climate Hazards 233</P>
<P>Jack Hobbs</P>
<P>Climate Modeling and Research Centers 243</P>
<P>Robert Mark Simpson</P>
<P>Climate Variation: Historical 247</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Climate Variation: Instrumental Data 263</P>
<P>Enric Aguilar, Robert G. Quayle and</P>
<P>J. Murray Mitchell Junior</P>
<P>Climate Vulnerability 266</P>
<P>Paul Kay</P>
<P>Climate Zones 270</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Climatology 272</P>
<P>H.E. Landsberg/J.E. Oliver</P>
<P>Climatology, History of 283</P>
<P>David H. Miller</P>
<P>Cloud Climatology 289</P>
<P>Joel Norris</P>
<P>Coastal Climate 294</P>
<P>R.A. Muller, H.J. Walker, and S.A. Hsu</P>
<P>Commerce and Climate 298</P>
<P>David Changnon</P>
<P>Condensation 302</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Continental Climate and Continentality 303</P>
<P>Richard Snow</P>
<P>Coral Reefs and Climate 305</P>
<P>J. Kleypas</P>
<P>Coriolis Effect 306</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Crime and Climate 307</P>
<P>James Lebeau</P>
<P>Cultural Climatology 308</P>
<P>John Thornes</P>
<P>Cycles and Periodicities 309</P>
<P>W.J. Burroughs</P>
<P>Degree Days 315</P>
<P>Danny M. Vaughn</P>
<P>Desertification 318</P>
<P>Michael H. Glantz</P>
<P>Deserts 324</P>
<P>Sharon E. Nicholson</P>
<P>Determinism, Climatic 333</P>
<P>Akhtar H. Siddiqi and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Dew/Dewpoint 336</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Doldrums 338</P>
<P>Joseph Gentilli</P>
<P>Drought 338</P>
<P>Donald A. Wilhite</P>
<P>Dynamic Climatology 341</P>
<P>Glen A. Marotz</P>
<P>Easterly Waves 346</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Ekman (Spiral) Layer 347</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Electromagnetic Radiation 348</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>El Niño 349</P>
<P>Michael H. Glantz</P>
<P>CONTENTS vi</P>
<P>Energy Budget Climatology 351</P>
<P>David Greenland</P>
<P>Europe, Climate of 355</P>
<P>Keith Robert Boucher</P>
<P>Evaporation 367</P>
<P>W.C. Swinbank</P>
<P>Evapotranspiration 370</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Extratropical Cyclones 373</P>
<P>Greg Bierly</P>
<P>Ferrel Cell 378</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Flohn, Hermann 379</P>
<P>Cameron Douglas Craig</P>
<P>Fog and Mist 379</P>
<P>John A. Day</P>
<P>Folklore, Myths and Climate 380</P>
<P>Randall S. Cerveny</P>
<P>Frost 381</P>
<P>Benjamin Moulton and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Gentilli, Joseph 384</P>
<P>John Dodson</P>
<P>Geomorphology and Climate 385</P>
<P>Susan Berta</P>
<P>Global Environmental Change: Impacts 388</P>
<P>R.E. Munn and A.R. Maarouf</P>
<P>Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gases 391</P>
<P>A.J. Pitman</P>
<P>Hadley Cell 398</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Hadley, George 399</P>
<P>Lisa M. Butler Harrington</P>
<P>Hail 399</P>
<P>Lewis G. Wixon</P>
<P>Hare, F. Kenneth 402</P>
<P>John Hay</P>
<P>Heat Index 403</P>
<P>Thomas W. Schlatter</P>
<P>Heat Low 405</P>
<P>L.M. Trapasso</P>
<P>Holocene Epoch 405</P>
<P>Neil Roberts</P>
<P>Horse Latitudes 406</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Howard, Luke 406</P>
<P>Cameron Douglas Craig</P>
<P>Human Health and Climate 407</P>
<P>Laurence S. Kalkstein</P>
<P>von Humboldt (Baron), Friedrich Heinrich Alexander 412</P>
<P>Lisa M. Butler Harrington</P>
<P>Humid Climates 412</P>
<P>James A. Henry</P>
<P>Humidity 413</P>
<P>John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Hydroclimatology 415</P>
<P>Wayne M. Wendland</P>
<P>Hurricanes – Data and Data Sources 420</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Ice Ages 422</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Icebergs and Heinrich Events 424</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Icelandic Low 428</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Indian Summer 429</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change (IPCC) 429</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 429</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Inversion 432</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>"ISO" Terms 433</P>
<P>John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Jet Streams 435</P>
<P>Elmar Reiter and Greg Bierly</P>
<P>Katabatic (Gravity) Winds 440</P>
<P>D.S. Munro</P>
<P>Kepler’s Laws 441</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Köppen, Wladimir Peter 441</P>
<P>William A. Dando</P>
<P>Krakatoa Winds 442</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Kyoto Protocol 443</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Lakes, Effects on Climate 444</P>
<P>Thomas W. Schmidlin</P>
<P>CONTENTS vii</P>
<P>Lamb, Hubert H. 445</P>
<P>Mick Kelly</P>
<P>Land and Sea Breezes 446</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Landsberg, Helmut E. 447</P>
<P>Ferdinand Baer</P>
<P>Lapse Rate 448</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Latent Heat 450</P>
<P>David R. Legates</P>
<P>Lightning 451</P>
<P>S. Ladochy</P>
<P>Literature and Climate 453</P>
<P>Christina Dando</P>
<P>Little Ice Age 457</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Local Climatology 460</P>
<P>Masatoshi Yoshino</P>
<P>Local Winds 467</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) 476</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Maritime Climate 477</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Mather, John R. 479</P>
<P>Sandra F. Pritchard Mather</P>
<P>Maunder, Edward Walter and Maunder Minimum 480</P>
<P>Patrick Moore and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Maury, Matthew Fontaine 481</P>
<P>Lisa M. Butler Harrington</P>
<P>Medieval Warm Period or "Little Climatic Optimum" 482</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Mediterranean Climates 485</P>
<P>G. Jay Lennartson</P>
<P>Microclimatology 486</P>
<P>W.G. Bailey</P>
<P>Middle Latitude Climates 500</P>
<P>Allen Perry</P>
<P>Milankovitch, Milutin 502</P>
<P>George Kukla and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Military Affairs and Climate 503</P>
<P>Richard W. Dixon</P>
<P>Models, Climatic 505</P>
<P>Brian Hanson and Cort J. Willmott</P>
<P>Monsoons and Monsoon Climate 509</P>
<P>S.K. Dash</P>
<P>Montreal Protocol 516</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Mountain and Valley Winds 516</P>
<P>John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Mountain Climates 517</P>
<P>David Greenland</P>
<P>National Center for Atmospheric Research 524</P>
<P>Anon</P>
<P>National Climate Data Center/Data Sources 524</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>North America, Climate of 525</P>
<P>William T. Corcoran and Elias Johnson</P>
<P>North American (Canadian) High 535</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>North Atlantic Oscillation 536</P>
<P>James W. Hurrell</P>
<P>Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction 540</P>
<P>G.R. Bigg</P>
<P>Ocean Circulation 547</P>
<P>J.G. Harvey and J.E. Oliver</P>
<P>Orographic Precipitation 552</P>
<P>Donna Tucker</P>
<P>Oscillations 555</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Ozone 556</P>
<P>J. Ben Liley</P>
<P>Pacific (Hawaiian) High 562</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Pacific North American Oscillation (PNA) 563</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Paleoclimatology 564</P>
<P>A.S. Goudie</P>
<P>Palmer Index/Palmer Drought Severity Index 571</P>
<P>James E. Newman and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Phase Changes 573</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Precipitation 574</P>
<P>Donna F. Tucker</P>
<P>Precipitation Distribution 576</P>
<P>Orman E. Granger</P>
<P>Pressure, Surface 583</P>
<P>Brian D. Giles</P>
<P>CONTENTS viii</P>
<P>Pressure, Upper Air 588</P>
<P>Brian D. Giles</P>
<P>Quasi-Biennial Oscillation 597</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Radar, Climatic Applications 600</P>
<P>David L. Arnold</P>
<P>Radiation Climatology 603</P>
<P>Gerald Mills</P>
<P>Radiation Laws 611</P>
<P>A. John Arnfield</P>
<P>Rainforest Climates 612</P>
<P>John J. Hidore</P>
<P>Rainshadow 615</P>
<P>L.M. Trapasso</P>
<P>Reanalysis Projects 615</P>
<P>Brian D. Giles</P>
<P>Relative Humidity 617</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Religion and Climate 618</P>
<P>William A. Dando</P>
<P>Rossby Wave/Rossby Number 625</P>
<P>Jay R. Harman and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Satellite Observations of the Earth’s Climate System 629</P>
<P>Graeme L. Stephens</P>
<P>Savanna Climate 635</P>
<P>John J. Hidore</P>
<P>Scales of Climate 637</P>
<P>A.A.L.N. Sarma</P>
<P>Sea Ice and Climate 639</P>
<P>John E. Walsh</P>
<P>Sea Level Rise 641</P>
<P>Vivien Gornitz</P>
<P>Seasonal Affective Disorder 644</P>
<P>Michael D. Morgan</P>
<P>Seasonal Climate Prediction 646</P>
<P>Peitao Peng</P>
<P>Seasonality: Astronomic Forcing 648</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Seasons 651</P>
<P>Ted Alsop</P>
<P>Sensible Heat 655</P>
<P>David R. Legates</P>
<P>Siberian (Asiatic) High 656</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Singularities 657</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Snow and Snow Cover 658</P>
<P>Ross D. Brown and David A. Robinson</P>
<P>Solar Activity 663</P>
<P>James H. Shirley</P>
<P>Solar Constant 666</P>
<P>James H. Shirley</P>
<P>Solar Flare 667</P>
<P>James H. Shirley</P>
<P>Solar Radiation 667</P>
<P>L.J. Bruce McArthur</P>
<P>Solar Wind 673</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>South America, Climate of 673</P>
<P>Norys Jiminez and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Southern Oscillation 679</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Sports, Recreation and Climate 682</P>
<P>Steve Stadler</P>
<P>Spring Green Wave 684</P>
<P>Mark D. Schwartz</P>
<P>Standard Atmosphere 686</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Statistical Climatology 687</P>
<P>Scott M. Robeson</P>
<P>Sunspots 694</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Synoptic Climatology 700</P>
<P>Roger G. Barry</P>
<P>Taiga Climate 705</P>
<P>Mary Snow</P>
<P>Teleconnections 707</P>
<P>Adam Burnett</P>
<P>Temperature Distribution 711</P>
<P>L.M. Trapasso</P>
<P>Terrestrial Radiation 716</P>
<P>A. John Arnfield</P>
<P>Thornthwaite, Charles W. 717</P>
<P>John R. Mather</P>
<P>Thunder 718</P>
<P>Richard K. Cook</P>
<P>Thunderstorms 719</P>
<P>Rodger A. Brown</P>
<P>CONTENTS ix</P>
<P>Tornadoes 724</P>
<P>Edward Aguado and James E. Burt</P>
<P>Tourism and Climate 730</P>
<P>Allen Perry</P>
<P>Trade Winds and the Trade Wind Inversion 731</P>
<P>T.W. Giambelluca</P>
<P>Tree-Ring Analysis 732</P>
<P>Harold C. Fritts and James H. Speer</P>
<P>Tropical and Equatorial Climates 742</P>
<P>James Henry</P>
<P>Tropical Cyclones 750</P>
<P>Jay Hobgood</P>
<P>Troposphere 756</P>
<P>K. Dewey</P>
<P>Tundra Climate 756</P>
<P>Mary Snow</P>
<P>Turbulence and Diffusion 759</P>
<P>Hans A. Panofsky</P>
<P>Ultraviolet Radiation 762</P>
<P>A. John Arnfield</P>
<P>Units and Conversions 763</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Urban Climatology 766</P>
<P>Anthony J. Brazel and Dale Quatrocchi</P>
<P>Vegetation and Climate 780</P>
<P>John R. Mather and Michael J. Brewer</P>
<P>Volcanic Eruptions and their Impact on the</P>
<P>Earth’s Climate 788</P>
<P>S.L. de Silva</P>
<P>Vorticity 794</P>
<P>Greg Bierly</P>
<P>Walker Circulation 797</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Water Budget Analysis 798</P>
<P>Robert A. Muller and John M. Grymes III</P>
<P>Weather 805</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Wind Chill 805</P>
<P>Thomas W. Schlatter</P>
<P>Wind Power Climatology 807</P>
<P>Steve Stadler and Tim Hughes</P>
<P>Winds and Wind Systems 813</P>
<P>Robert C. Balling Jr. and Randall S. Cerveny</P>
<P>Zonal Index 820</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Index of Authors Cited 823</P>
<P>Subject Index 843</P>
<P>D.S. Munro</P>
<P>Bowen Ratio 178</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Budyko, Mikhail Ivanovich 179</P>
<P>William A. Dando</P>
<P>Carbon-14 Dating 181</P>
<P>Claudio Vita-Finzi</P>
<P>Centers of Action 182</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Central America and the Caribbean, Climate of 183</P>
<P>Michael A. Taylor and Eric J. Alfaro</P>
<P>Climate Affairs 189</P>
<P>Michael H. Glantz</P>
<P>Climatic Change and Ancient Civilizations 192</P>
<P>Masatoshi Yoshino</P>
<P>Climate Change and Global Warming 199</P>
<P>Michael C. MacCracken</P>
<P>Climate Change and Human Health 209</P>
<P>Anthony J. McMichael and Rosalie E. Woodruff</P>
<P>Climate Change Impacts: Potential</P>
<P>Environmental and Societal Consequences 213</P>
<P>Michael C. MacCracken</P>
<P>Climate Classification 218</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Climate Comfort Indices 227</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Climate Data Centers 231</P>
<P>Robert Mark Simpson</P>
<P>Climate Hazards 233</P>
<P>Jack Hobbs</P>
<P>Climate Modeling and Research Centers 243</P>
<P>Robert Mark Simpson</P>
<P>Climate Variation: Historical 247</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Climate Variation: Instrumental Data 263</P>
<P>Enric Aguilar, Robert G. Quayle and</P>
<P>J. Murray Mitchell Junior</P>
<P>Climate Vulnerability 266</P>
<P>Paul Kay</P>
<P>Climate Zones 270</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Climatology 272</P>
<P>H.E. Landsberg/J.E. Oliver</P>
<P>Climatology, History of 283</P>
<P>David H. Miller</P>
<P>Cloud Climatology 289</P>
<P>Joel Norris</P>
<P>Coastal Climate 294</P>
<P>R.A. Muller, H.J. Walker, and S.A. Hsu</P>
<P>Commerce and Climate 298</P>
<P>David Changnon</P>
<P>Condensation 302</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Continental Climate and Continentality 303</P>
<P>Richard Snow</P>
<P>Coral Reefs and Climate 305</P>
<P>J. Kleypas</P>
<P>Coriolis Effect 306</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Crime and Climate 307</P>
<P>James Lebeau</P>
<P>Cultural Climatology 308</P>
<P>John Thornes</P>
<P>Cycles and Periodicities 309</P>
<P>W.J. Burroughs</P>
<P>Degree Days 315</P>
<P>Danny M. Vaughn</P>
<P>Desertification 318</P>
<P>Michael H. Glantz</P>
<P>Deserts 324</P>
<P>Sharon E. Nicholson</P>
<P>Determinism, Climatic 333</P>
<P>Akhtar H. Siddiqi and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Dew/Dewpoint 336</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Doldrums 338</P>
<P>Joseph Gentilli</P>
<P>Drought 338</P>
<P>Donald A. Wilhite</P>
<P>Dynamic Climatology 341</P>
<P>Glen A. Marotz</P>
<P>Easterly Waves 346</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Ekman (Spiral) Layer 347</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Electromagnetic Radiation 348</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>El Niño 349</P>
<P>Michael H. Glantz</P>
<P>CONTENTS vi</P>
<P>Energy Budget Climatology 351</P>
<P>David Greenland</P>
<P>Europe, Climate of 355</P>
<P>Keith Robert Boucher</P>
<P>Evaporation 367</P>
<P>W.C. Swinbank</P>
<P>Evapotranspiration 370</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Extratropical Cyclones 373</P>
<P>Greg Bierly</P>
<P>Ferrel Cell 378</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Flohn, Hermann 379</P>
<P>Cameron Douglas Craig</P>
<P>Fog and Mist 379</P>
<P>John A. Day</P>
<P>Folklore, Myths and Climate 380</P>
<P>Randall S. Cerveny</P>
<P>Frost 381</P>
<P>Benjamin Moulton and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Gentilli, Joseph 384</P>
<P>John Dodson</P>
<P>Geomorphology and Climate 385</P>
<P>Susan Berta</P>
<P>Global Environmental Change: Impacts 388</P>
<P>R.E. Munn and A.R. Maarouf</P>
<P>Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gases 391</P>
<P>A.J. Pitman</P>
<P>Hadley Cell 398</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Hadley, George 399</P>
<P>Lisa M. Butler Harrington</P>
<P>Hail 399</P>
<P>Lewis G. Wixon</P>
<P>Hare, F. Kenneth 402</P>
<P>John Hay</P>
<P>Heat Index 403</P>
<P>Thomas W. Schlatter</P>
<P>Heat Low 405</P>
<P>L.M. Trapasso</P>
<P>Holocene Epoch 405</P>
<P>Neil Roberts</P>
<P>Horse Latitudes 406</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Howard, Luke 406</P>
<P>Cameron Douglas Craig</P>
<P>Human Health and Climate 407</P>
<P>Laurence S. Kalkstein</P>
<P>von Humboldt (Baron), Friedrich Heinrich Alexander 412</P>
<P>Lisa M. Butler Harrington</P>
<P>Humid Climates 412</P>
<P>James A. Henry</P>
<P>Humidity 413</P>
<P>John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Hydroclimatology 415</P>
<P>Wayne M. Wendland</P>
<P>Hurricanes – Data and Data Sources 420</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Ice Ages 422</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Icebergs and Heinrich Events 424</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Icelandic Low 428</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Indian Summer 429</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change (IPCC) 429</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 429</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Inversion 432</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>"ISO" Terms 433</P>
<P>John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Jet Streams 435</P>
<P>Elmar Reiter and Greg Bierly</P>
<P>Katabatic (Gravity) Winds 440</P>
<P>D.S. Munro</P>
<P>Kepler’s Laws 441</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Köppen, Wladimir Peter 441</P>
<P>William A. Dando</P>
<P>Krakatoa Winds 442</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Kyoto Protocol 443</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Lakes, Effects on Climate 444</P>
<P>Thomas W. Schmidlin</P>
<P>CONTENTS vii</P>
<P>Lamb, Hubert H. 445</P>
<P>Mick Kelly</P>
<P>Land and Sea Breezes 446</P>
<P>Yuk Yee Yan</P>
<P>Landsberg, Helmut E. 447</P>
<P>Ferdinand Baer</P>
<P>Lapse Rate 448</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Latent Heat 450</P>
<P>David R. Legates</P>
<P>Lightning 451</P>
<P>S. Ladochy</P>
<P>Literature and Climate 453</P>
<P>Christina Dando</P>
<P>Little Ice Age 457</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Local Climatology 460</P>
<P>Masatoshi Yoshino</P>
<P>Local Winds 467</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) 476</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Maritime Climate 477</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Mather, John R. 479</P>
<P>Sandra F. Pritchard Mather</P>
<P>Maunder, Edward Walter and Maunder Minimum 480</P>
<P>Patrick Moore and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Maury, Matthew Fontaine 481</P>
<P>Lisa M. Butler Harrington</P>
<P>Medieval Warm Period or "Little Climatic Optimum" 482</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Mediterranean Climates 485</P>
<P>G. Jay Lennartson</P>
<P>Microclimatology 486</P>
<P>W.G. Bailey</P>
<P>Middle Latitude Climates 500</P>
<P>Allen Perry</P>
<P>Milankovitch, Milutin 502</P>
<P>George Kukla and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Military Affairs and Climate 503</P>
<P>Richard W. Dixon</P>
<P>Models, Climatic 505</P>
<P>Brian Hanson and Cort J. Willmott</P>
<P>Monsoons and Monsoon Climate 509</P>
<P>S.K. Dash</P>
<P>Montreal Protocol 516</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Mountain and Valley Winds 516</P>
<P>John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Mountain Climates 517</P>
<P>David Greenland</P>
<P>National Center for Atmospheric Research 524</P>
<P>Anon</P>
<P>National Climate Data Center/Data Sources 524</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>North America, Climate of 525</P>
<P>William T. Corcoran and Elias Johnson</P>
<P>North American (Canadian) High 535</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>North Atlantic Oscillation 536</P>
<P>James W. Hurrell</P>
<P>Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction 540</P>
<P>G.R. Bigg</P>
<P>Ocean Circulation 547</P>
<P>J.G. Harvey and J.E. Oliver</P>
<P>Orographic Precipitation 552</P>
<P>Donna Tucker</P>
<P>Oscillations 555</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Ozone 556</P>
<P>J. Ben Liley</P>
<P>Pacific (Hawaiian) High 562</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Pacific North American Oscillation (PNA) 563</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Paleoclimatology 564</P>
<P>A.S. Goudie</P>
<P>Palmer Index/Palmer Drought Severity Index 571</P>
<P>James E. Newman and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Phase Changes 573</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Precipitation 574</P>
<P>Donna F. Tucker</P>
<P>Precipitation Distribution 576</P>
<P>Orman E. Granger</P>
<P>Pressure, Surface 583</P>
<P>Brian D. Giles</P>
<P>CONTENTS viii</P>
<P>Pressure, Upper Air 588</P>
<P>Brian D. Giles</P>
<P>Quasi-Biennial Oscillation 597</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Radar, Climatic Applications 600</P>
<P>David L. Arnold</P>
<P>Radiation Climatology 603</P>
<P>Gerald Mills</P>
<P>Radiation Laws 611</P>
<P>A. John Arnfield</P>
<P>Rainforest Climates 612</P>
<P>John J. Hidore</P>
<P>Rainshadow 615</P>
<P>L.M. Trapasso</P>
<P>Reanalysis Projects 615</P>
<P>Brian D. Giles</P>
<P>Relative Humidity 617</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Religion and Climate 618</P>
<P>William A. Dando</P>
<P>Rossby Wave/Rossby Number 625</P>
<P>Jay R. Harman and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Satellite Observations of the Earth’s Climate System 629</P>
<P>Graeme L. Stephens</P>
<P>Savanna Climate 635</P>
<P>John J. Hidore</P>
<P>Scales of Climate 637</P>
<P>A.A.L.N. Sarma</P>
<P>Sea Ice and Climate 639</P>
<P>John E. Walsh</P>
<P>Sea Level Rise 641</P>
<P>Vivien Gornitz</P>
<P>Seasonal Affective Disorder 644</P>
<P>Michael D. Morgan</P>
<P>Seasonal Climate Prediction 646</P>
<P>Peitao Peng</P>
<P>Seasonality: Astronomic Forcing 648</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Seasons 651</P>
<P>Ted Alsop</P>
<P>Sensible Heat 655</P>
<P>David R. Legates</P>
<P>Siberian (Asiatic) High 656</P>
<P>Robert M. Hordon</P>
<P>Singularities 657</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Snow and Snow Cover 658</P>
<P>Ross D. Brown and David A. Robinson</P>
<P>Solar Activity 663</P>
<P>James H. Shirley</P>
<P>Solar Constant 666</P>
<P>James H. Shirley</P>
<P>Solar Flare 667</P>
<P>James H. Shirley</P>
<P>Solar Radiation 667</P>
<P>L.J. Bruce McArthur</P>
<P>Solar Wind 673</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>South America, Climate of 673</P>
<P>Norys Jiminez and John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Southern Oscillation 679</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Sports, Recreation and Climate 682</P>
<P>Steve Stadler</P>
<P>Spring Green Wave 684</P>
<P>Mark D. Schwartz</P>
<P>Standard Atmosphere 686</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Statistical Climatology 687</P>
<P>Scott M. Robeson</P>
<P>Sunspots 694</P>
<P>Rhodes W. Fairbridge</P>
<P>Synoptic Climatology 700</P>
<P>Roger G. Barry</P>
<P>Taiga Climate 705</P>
<P>Mary Snow</P>
<P>Teleconnections 707</P>
<P>Adam Burnett</P>
<P>Temperature Distribution 711</P>
<P>L.M. Trapasso</P>
<P>Terrestrial Radiation 716</P>
<P>A. John Arnfield</P>
<P>Thornthwaite, Charles W. 717</P>
<P>John R. Mather</P>
<P>Thunder 718</P>
<P>Richard K. Cook</P>
<P>Thunderstorms 719</P>
<P>Rodger A. Brown</P>
<P>CONTENTS ix</P>
<P>Tornadoes 724</P>
<P>Edward Aguado and James E. Burt</P>
<P>Tourism and Climate 730</P>
<P>Allen Perry</P>
<P>Trade Winds and the Trade Wind Inversion 731</P>
<P>T.W. Giambelluca</P>
<P>Tree-Ring Analysis 732</P>
<P>Harold C. Fritts and James H. Speer</P>
<P>Tropical and Equatorial Climates 742</P>
<P>James Henry</P>
<P>Tropical Cyclones 750</P>
<P>Jay Hobgood</P>
<P>Troposphere 756</P>
<P>K. Dewey</P>
<P>Tundra Climate 756</P>
<P>Mary Snow</P>
<P>Turbulence and Diffusion 759</P>
<P>Hans A. Panofsky</P>
<P>Ultraviolet Radiation 762</P>
<P>A. John Arnfield</P>
<P>Units and Conversions 763</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Urban Climatology 766</P>
<P>Anthony J. Brazel and Dale Quatrocchi</P>
<P>Vegetation and Climate 780</P>
<P>John R. Mather and Michael J. Brewer</P>
<P>Volcanic Eruptions and their Impact on the</P>
<P>Earth’s Climate 788</P>
<P>S.L. de Silva</P>
<P>Vorticity 794</P>
<P>Greg Bierly</P>
<P>Walker Circulation 797</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Water Budget Analysis 798</P>
<P>Robert A. Muller and John M. Grymes III</P>
<P>Weather 805</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Wind Chill 805</P>
<P>Thomas W. Schlatter</P>
<P>Wind Power Climatology 807</P>
<P>Steve Stadler and Tim Hughes</P>
<P>Winds and Wind Systems 813</P>
<P>Robert C. Balling Jr. and Randall S. Cerveny</P>
<P>Zonal Index 820</P>
<P>John E. Oliver</P>
<P>Index of Authors Cited 823</P>
<P>Subject Index 843</P>