Food Safety – Innovative Analytical Tools for Safety Assessment

<p>Preface xiii</p>
<p>1 Food Analysis: A Brief Overview 1<br /> Giuseppe Cirillo, Donatella Restuccia, Manuela Curcio, Francesca Iemma and Umile Gianfranco Spizzirri</p>
<p>1.1 Introduction 1</p>
<p>1.2 Chromatographic Techniques in Food Analysis 2</p>
<p>1.3 Spectroscopic Methods 5</p>
<p>1.4 Biologically Based Methodologies in Food Analysis 7</p>
<p>References 8</p>
<p>2 Recent Analytical Methods for the Analysis of Sweeteners in Food: A Regulatory Perspective 13<br /> Romina Shah and Lowri S. De Jager</p>
<p>2.1 Introduction 13</p>
<p>2.2 Sample Preparation 17</p>
<p>2.2.1 Internal Standards 20</p>
<p>2.3 Analytical Methods 21</p>
<p>2.3.1 Instrumental Analyses 21</p>
<p>2.3.1.1 HPLC–UV–VIS/DAD/ELSD Detection 21</p>
<p>2.3.1.2 HPLC–MS/Tandem MS Detection 24</p>
<p>2.3.1.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 28</p>
<p>2.4 Future Trends 28</p>
<p>References 29</p>
<p>3 Current Analytical Techniques for Food Lipids 33<br /> Cynthia T. Srigley and Magdi M. Mossoba</p>
<p>3.1 Introduction 33</p>
<p>3.2 Official Methods for the Analysis of Fat in Foods 36</p>
<p>3.2.1 Importance of Official Methods of Analysis 36</p>
<p>3.2.2 Official Methods for the Gravimetric Determination of Total Fat 36</p>
<p>3.2.2.1 Solvent Extraction Procedures 37</p>
<p>3.2.2.2 Hydrolytic Procedures 40</p>
<p>3.2.3 Official Methods for the Determination of Total Fat by GC 42</p>
<p>3.2.3.1 Sample Preparation Procedures 42</p>
<p>3.2.3.2 Analysis of FAME by GC–FID 47</p>
<p>3.2.4 FTIR Spectroscopic Methods 51</p>
<p>3.2.5 Method Validation for Novel Sample Matrices 54</p>
<p>3.3 Conclusions 56</p>
<p>References 57</p>
<p>4 Detection of Allergenic Proteins in Food: Analytical Methods 65<br /> Girdhari M. Sharma, Sefat E Khuda, Christine H. Parker, Anne C. Eischeid and Marion Pereira</p>
<p>4.1 Introduction 65</p>
<p>4.2 Immunochemical Methods 69</p>
<p>4.2.1 Lateral Flow Device (LFD)/Dipstick 69</p>
<p>4.2.2 ELISA 70</p>
<p>4.2.2.1 Milk 71</p>
<p>4.2.2.2 Egg 72</p>
<p>4.2.2.3 Fish 72</p>
<p>4.2.2.4 Crustacean Shellfish 73</p>
<p>4.2.2.5 Peanut 73</p>
<p>4.2.2.6 Tree Nuts 74</p>
<p>4.2.2.7 Wheat (Gluten) 75</p>
<p>4.2.2.8 Soy 76</p>
<p>4.3 Mass Spectrometry (MS) Methods 76</p>
<p>4.3.1 Milk 81</p>
<p>4.3.2 Egg 82</p>
<p>4.3.3 Fish and Crustacean Shellfish 82</p>
<p>4.3.4 Peanut 83</p>
<p>4.3.5 Tree Nuts 83</p>
<p>4.3.6 Wheat 84</p>
<p>4.3.7 Soy 84</p>
<p>4.4 DNA–Based Methods 85</p>
<p>4.4.1 Tree Nuts 89</p>
<p>4.4.2 Crustacean Shellfish 90</p>
<p>4.5 Method Validation 90</p>
<p>4.5.1 Specificity and Cross–Reactivity 97</p>
<p>4.5.2 Robustness and Ruggedness 97</p>
<p>4.5.3 Sensitivity, LOD and LOQ 97</p>
<p>4.5.4 Accuracy and Trueness 98</p>
<p>4.5.5 Precision 98</p>
<p>References 99</p>
<p>5 GMO Analysis Methods for Food: From Today to Tomorrow 123<br /> &Ouml;zg&uuml;r &Ccedil;ak r, Sinan Meri&ccedil; and ule Ar </p>
<p>5.1 Introduction 124</p>
<p>5.2 Methods for Detection, Identification and Quantification of GMOs in Food 135</p>
<p>5.2.1 Detection of GMOs by DNA–Based Methods 136</p>
<p>5.2.1.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction for GMO Detection 138</p>
<p>5.2.1.2 Real–Time PCR for GMO Quantification 140</p>
<p>5.2.2 Protein–Based Methods for GMO Detection and Quantification 141</p>
<p>5.2.2.1 ELISA (Enzyme–Linked Immunosorbent Assay) 142</p>
<p>5.2.2.2 Lateral Flow Strips 143</p>
<p>5.2.3 Phenotypic Detection of GMOs 144</p>
<p>5.2.4 Overall Assessment of Conventional Methods 145</p>
<p>5.2.5 New Detection Methods of GMOs 145</p>
<p>5.2.5.1 Amplification Based Detection Methods of GMOs 145</p>
<p>5.2.5.2 Biosensor–Based Detection Methods of GMOs 151</p>
<p>5.2.5.3 High–Throughput (HT) Techniques for GMO Detection 154</p>
<p>5.3 Conclusion 160</p>
<p>References 163</p>
<p>6 Determination of Antioxidant Compounds in Foodstuff 179<br /> Amilcar L. Antonio, Eliana Pereira, Jos&eacute; Pinela, Sandrina Heleno, Carla Pereira and Isabel C.F.R. Ferreira</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 179</p>
<p>6.2 Common Antioxidants in Foodstuff 180</p>
<p>6.3 Antioxidants for Bioactive or Preservative Purposes 184</p>
<p>6.4 Analysis of Antioxidants in Foods 190</p>
<p>6.4.1 Extraction of Antioxidant Compounds 190</p>
<p>6.4.1.1 Conventional Methods 192</p>
<p>6.4.1.2 Nonconventional Methods 192</p>
<p>6.4.1.3 Extraction Solvents and Surfactants 196</p>
<p>6.4.2 Analytical Methodologies for Antioxidants 197</p>
<p>6.4.2.1 Detection of Antioxidant Compounds 197</p>
<p>6.4.2.2 Determination of Individual Antioxidant Molecules 198</p>
<p>6.5 Conclusion 202</p>
<p>References 203</p>
<p>7 Analytical Methods for Pesticide Detection in Foodstuffs 221<br /> S. Hrouzkov&aacute;</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 221</p>
<p>7.1.1 Pesticide Residues in Foodstuffs 223</p>
<p>7.1.2 Analytical Methods for Pesticide Residue Analysis 224</p>
<p>7.2 Sample Preparation 225</p>
<p>7.2.1 Solvent–Based Extractions Liquid–Liquid Extraction (LLE) 227</p>
<p>7.2.1.1 QuEChERS Extraction 227</p>
<p>7.2.1.2 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 229</p>
<p>7.2.1.3 Microwave–Assisted Extraction (MAE) 230</p>
<p>7.2.1.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 231</p>
<p>7.2.1.5 Liquid Phase Microextraction (LPME) 232</p>
<p>7.2.2 Sorption–Based Extractions 234</p>
<p>7.2.2.1 Solid–Phase Extraction (SPE) 234</p>
<p>7.2.2.2 Matrix Solid–Phase Dispersion (MSPD) 238</p>
<p>7.2.2.3 Microextraction by Packed Syringe (MEPS) 238</p>
<p>7.2.2.4 Solid–Phase Microextraction (SPME) 239</p>
<p>7.2.2.5 Stir–Bar SorptiveExtraction (SBSE) 240</p>
<p>7.3 Chromatographic Methods 241</p>
<p>7.3.1 Gas Chromatography 242</p>
<p>7.3.2 Fast Gas Chromatography 243</p>
<p>7.3.3 Liquid Chromatography 244</p>
<p>7.4 Detection of Pesticides 245</p>
<p>7.4.1 MS Detection 246</p>
<p>7.4.1.1 Ionization Techniques in GC–MS 246</p>
<p>7.4.1.2 Ionization Interfaces in LC–MS 247</p>
<p>7.4.1.3 MS Analyzers and Tandem MS 248</p>
<p>7.4.2 Ambient MS 250</p>
<p>7.5 Specific Problems of Pesticide Residue Analysis 252</p>
<p>7.6 Future Trends and Conclusions 254</p>
<p>Acknowledgment 254</p>
<p>References 255</p>
<p>8 Application of Chromatograpic Methods for Identification of Biogenic Amines in Foods of Animal Origin 271<br /> C&eacute;sar Aquiles L&aacute;zaro De La Torre and Carlos Adam Conte–Junio</p>
<p>8.1 Biogenic Amines 272</p>
<p>8.1.1 Definition 272</p>
<p>8.1.2 Classification 272</p>
<p>8.1.3 Synthesis 272</p>
<p>8.2 Importance of Biogenic Amines in Food of Animal Origin 273</p>
<p>8.2.1 Toxicological Aspect 274</p>
<p>8.2.2 Quality Indicators 275</p>
<p>8.2.3 Control and Prevention 276</p>
<p>8.3 Procedures for Chromatographic Methods in Biogenic Amines 277</p>
<p>8.3.1 Sample Processing 278</p>
<p>8.3.2 Analytical Determination 286</p>
<p>8.4 Chromatography Applications in Food of Animal Origin 288</p>
<p>8.4.1 Milk and Dairy Products 289</p>
<p>8.4.2 Fish and Seafood Products 291</p>
<p>8.4.3 Meat, Meat Products and Edible Byproducts 292</p>
<p>8.4.4 Chicken Meat and Chicken Meat Products 293</p>
<p>8.4.5 Eggs and Egg Products 293</p>
<p>8.4.6 Honey 294</p>
<p>8.5 Conclusion 294</p>
<p>Acknowledgments 295</p>
<p>References 295</p>
<p>9 Advances in Food Allergen Analysis 305<br /> Joana Costa, Telmo J.R. Fernandes, Caterina Villa, M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira and Isabel Mafra</p>
<p>9.1 Introduction 305</p>
<p>9.2 Proteins versus DNA as Targets for Food Allergen Analysis 307</p>
<p>9.2.1 Protein–Based Methods 308</p>
<p>9.2.1.1 ELISA 308</p>
<p>9.2.1.2 Immunosensors 310</p>
<p>9.2.1.3 MS Platforms 321</p>
<p>9.2.2 DNA–Based Techniques 332</p>
<p>9.2.2.1 Real–Time PCR Coupled to</p>
<p>HRM Analysis 332</p>
<p>9.2.2.2 Single–Tube Nested Real–Time PCR 333</p>
<p>9.2.2.3 Ligation–Dependent Probe Amplification 337</p>
<p>9.2.2.4 Genosensors 338</p>
<p>9.2.3 Aptasensors 343</p>
<p>9.3 Final Remarks 343</p>
<p>Acknowledgments 346</p>
<p>References 347</p>
<p>10 Food and Viral Contamination: Analytical Methods 361<br /> Gloria S&aacute;nchez</p>
<p>10.1 Introduction 361</p>
<p>10.1.1 Virus Extraction from Food 364</p>
<p>10.1.2 Virus Extraction from Bilvalve Molluscs 364</p>
<p>10.1.3 Virus Extraction from Soft Fruits and Leafy Greens 367</p>
<p>10.1.4 Virus Extraction from Bottled Water 371</p>
<p>10.1.5 Virus Extraction from Other Food Products 373</p>
<p>10.2 Nucleic Acid Extraction and Purification 374</p>
<p>10.3 Virus Detection by Molecular Techniques 374</p>
<p>10.4 Assessment of Infectivity 376</p>
<p>10.5 Quality Controls 378</p>
<p>10.6 Conclusions 379</p>
<p>Acknowledgments 380</p>
<p>References 380</p>
<p>11 Application of Biosensors for Food Analysis 395<br /> Viviana Scognamiglio, Amina Antonacci, Maya D. Lambreva, Fabiana Arduini, Giuseppe Palleschi, Simona C. Litescu, Udo Johanningmeier and Giuseppina Rea</p>
<p>11.1 The Agrifood Sector 396</p>
<p>11.2 Food Quality and Safety Concepts 397</p>
<p>11.3 Effect of Unsafe Food on Human Health 400</p>
<p>11.4 Revealing Methods for Food Components and Contaminants 402</p>
<p>11.5 Biosensors: Definition, Market and Application Fields 403</p>
<p>11.6 Biosensors and Bioassays for the Detection of Food Components and Contaminants 405</p>
<p>11.6.1 Biosensing Technologies for Glucose Detection 405</p>
<p>11.6.2 Biosensors and Bioassays to Reveal Glutamine 409</p>
<p>11.6.3 Biodetecting Methods for Gliadin 410</p>
<p>11.6.4 Enzyme Based–Biosensors for Phenols Detection 412</p>
<p>11.6.5 Biosensing Technology Trends for Pesticide Monitoring 414</p>
<p>11.6.6 Toxin Biodetection 419</p>
<p>11.6.7 Heavy Metal Monitoring by Biosensing Methodologies 420</p>
<p>11.7 Biosensors for Intelligent Food Packaging 422</p>
<p>11.8 Biosensor Technology to Sustain Precision Farming 423</p>
<p>11.9 Conclusions 424</p>
<p>Acknowledgments 426</p>
<p>References 426</p>
<p>12 Immunoassay Methods in Food Analysis 435<br /> Pranav Tripathi, Satish Malik and Seema Nara</p>
<p>12.1 Introduction 436</p>
<p>12.2 Immunoassays 437</p>
<p>12.2.1 Principle and Significance of ELISA 438</p>
<p>12.2.2 Application of Immunoassays in Food Safety 439</p>
<p>12.3 Immunosensors 440</p>
<p>12.3.1 Electrochemical Transducers 441</p>
<p>12.3.1.1 Amperometric Transducers 441</p>
<p>12.3.1.2 Potentiometric Transducers 441</p>
<p>12.3.2 Piezoelectric Immunosensors 441</p>
<p>12.3.3 Optical Transducers 442</p>
<p>12.3.4 Application of Immunosensors in Food Safety 442</p>
<p>12.4 Lateral Flow Immunoassay (LFIA) 443</p>
<p>12.4.1 Applications of LFIA in Food Safety 444</p>
<p>12.5 Sample Processing in Food Analysis 445</p>
<p>12.6 Outlook 446</p>
<p>References 450</p>