Energy, Entropy and Engines – An Introduction to Thermodynamics

<p>Preface xii</p>
<p>About the Companion website xiv</p>
<p>1 Introduction: A Brief History of Thermodynamics 1</p>
<p>1.1 What is Thermodynamics? 1</p>
<p>1.2 Steam Engines 2</p>
<p>1.3 Heat Engines 7</p>
<p>1.4 Heat, Work and Energy 8</p>
<p>1.5 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 11</p>
<p>1.6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 13</p>
<p>1.7 Entropy 15</p>
<p>Further Reading 17</p>
<p>2 Concepts and Definitions 18</p>
<p>2.1 Fundamental Concepts from Newtonian Mechanics 18</p>
<p>2.1.1 Length 19</p>
<p>2.1.2 Mass 19</p>
<p>2.1.3 Time 19</p>
<p>2.2 Derived Quantities: Velocity and Acceleration 19</p>
<p>2.3 Postulates: Newton s Laws 21</p>
<p>2.4 Mechanical Work and Energy 23</p>
<p>2.4.1 Potential Energy 25</p>
<p>2.4.2 Kinetic Energy 27</p>
<p>2.5 Thermodynamic Systems 29</p>
<p>2.5.1 Closed System 30</p>
<p>2.5.2 Open System 30</p>
<p>2.5.3 Isolated System 30</p>
<p>2.6 Thermodynamic Properties 31</p>
<p>2.6.1 Path Functions 32</p>
<p>2.6.2 Intensive and Extensive Properties 33</p>
<p>2.7 Steady State 35</p>
<p>2.8 Equilibrium 35</p>
<p>2.8.1 Mechanical Equilibrium 37</p>
<p>2.8.2 Thermal Equilibrium 37</p>
<p>2.8.3 Phase Equilibrium 37</p>
<p>2.9 State and Process 38</p>
<p>2.10 Quasi ]Equilibrium Process 39</p>
<p>2.11 Cycle 41</p>
<p>2.12 Solving Problems in Thermodynamics 43</p>
<p>2.13 Significant Digits and Decimal Places 43</p>
<p>Further Reading 44</p>
<p>Summary 44</p>
<p>Problems 46</p>
<p>3 Thermodynamic System Properties 49</p>
<p>3.1 Describing a Thermodynamic System 49</p>
<p>3.2 States of Pure Substances 50</p>
<p>3.3 Mass and Volume 51</p>
<p>3.4 Pressure 54</p>
<p>3.5 Temperature 56</p>
<p>3.6 Ideal Gas Equation 57</p>
<p>3.7 Absolute Temperature Scale 58</p>
<p>3.8 Modelling Ideal Gases 62</p>
<p>3.9 Internal Energy 64</p>
<p>3.10 Properties of Liquids and Solids 66</p>
<p>Further Reading 66</p>
<p>Summary 67</p>
<p>Problems 68</p>
<p>4 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 72</p>
<p>4.1 Energy 72</p>
<p>4.2 Forms of Energy 73</p>
<p>4.3 Energy Transfer 75</p>
<p>4.4 Heat 77</p>
<p>4.5 Work 78</p>
<p>4.5.1 Boundary Work 78</p>
<p>4.5.2 Flow Work 86</p>
<p>4.5.3 Shaft Work 87</p>
<p>4.5.4 Spring Work 89</p>
<p>4.5.5 Electrical Work 90</p>
<p>4.6 The First Law for a Control Mass 91</p>
<p>4.7 Enthalpy 95</p>
<p>4.8 Specific Heats 97</p>
<p>4.9 Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 99</p>
<p>4.10 Which should you use, cp or cv? 102</p>
<p>4.11 Ideal Gas Tables 106</p>
<p>4.12 Specific Heats of Liquids and Solids 108</p>
<p>4.13 Steady Mass Flow Through a Control Volume 110</p>
<p>4.14 The First Law for Steady Mass Flow Through a Control Volume 112</p>
<p>4.15 Steady Flow Devices 113</p>
<p>4.15.1 Turbines and Compressors 113</p>
<p>4.15.2 Pumps 115</p>
<p>4.15.3 Nozzles and Diffusers 116</p>
<p>4.16 Transient Analysis for Control Volumes 118</p>
<p>Further Reading 120</p>
<p>Summary 120</p>
<p>Problems 123</p>
<p>5 Entropy 133</p>
<p>5.1 Converting Heat to Work 133</p>
<p>5.2 A New Extensive Property: Entropy 135</p>
<p>5.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics 138</p>
<p>5.4 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 139</p>
<p>5.5 State Postulate 143</p>
<p>5.6 Equilibrium in a Gas 144</p>
<p>5.7 Equilibrium A Simple Example 149</p>
<p>5.8 Molecular Definition of Entropy 155</p>
<p>5.9 Third Law of Thermodynamics 157</p>
<p>5.10 Production of Entropy 157</p>
<p>5.11 Heat and Work: A Microscopic View 159</p>
<p>5.12 Order and Uncertainty 161</p>
<p>Further Reading 162</p>
<p>Summary 162</p>
<p>Problems 163</p>
<p>6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 168</p>
<p>6.1 The Postulates of Classical Thermodynamics 168</p>
<p>6.2 Thermal Equilibrium and Temperature 169</p>
<p>6.3 Mechanical Equilibrium and Pressure 171</p>
<p>6.4 Gibbs Equation 173</p>
<p>6.5 Entropy Changes in Solids and Liquids 174</p>
<p>6.6 Entropy Changes in Ideal Gases 175</p>
<p>6.6.1 Constant Specific Heats 175</p>
<p>6.6.2 Ideal Gas Tables 177</p>
<p>6.7 Isentropic Processes in Ideal Gases 180</p>
<p>6.7.1 Constant Specific Heats 180</p>
<p>6.7.2 Ideal Gas Tables 183</p>
<p>6.8 Reversible Heat Transfer 185</p>
<p>6.9 T ]S Diagrams 187</p>
<p>6.10 Entropy Balance for a Control Mass 187</p>
<p>6.11 Entropy Balance for a Control Volume 190</p>
<p>6.12 Isentropic Steady Flow Devices 192</p>
<p>6.13 Isentropic Efficiencies 194</p>
<p>6.13.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 194</p>
<p>6.13.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 195</p>
<p>6.13.3 Isentropic Pump and Compressor Efficiency 196</p>
<p>6.14 Exergy 198</p>
<p>6.14.1 Exergy of a Control Mass 199</p>
<p>6.14.2 Exergy of a Control Volume 201</p>
<p>6.15 Bernoulli s Equation 204</p>
<p>Further Reading 206</p>
<p>Summary 206</p>
<p>Problems 210</p>
<p>7 Phase Equilibrium 218</p>
<p>7.1 Liquid Vapour Mixtures 218</p>
<p>7.2 Phase Change 219</p>
<p>7.3 Gibbs Energy and Chemical Potential 221</p>
<p>7.4 Phase Equilibrium 223</p>
<p>7.5 Evaluating the Chemical Potential 225</p>
<p>7.6 Clausius Clapyeron Equation 225</p>
<p>7.7 Liquid Solid and Vapour Solid Equilibria 229</p>
<p>7.8 Phase Change on P ]v and T ]v Diagrams 231</p>
<p>7.9 Quality 234</p>
<p>7.10 Property Tables 235</p>
<p>7.11 Van der Waals Equation of State 247</p>
<p>7.12 Compressibility Factor 251</p>
<p>7.13 Other Equations of State 252</p>
<p>7.13.1 Redlich Kwong Equation of State 252</p>
<p>7.13.2 Virial Equation of State 253</p>
<p>Further Reading 255</p>
<p>Summary 255</p>
<p>Problems 257</p>
<p>8 Ideal Heat Engines and Refrigerators 267</p>
<p>8.1 Heat Engines 267</p>
<p>8.2 Perpetual Motion Machines 268</p>
<p>8.3 Carnot Engine 269</p>
<p>8.3.1 Two ]Phase Carnot Engine 273</p>
<p>8.3.2 Single Phase Carnot Engine 276</p>
<p>8.4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 278</p>
<p>8.4.1 Carnot Refrigerator 279</p>
<p>8.4.2 Carnot Heat Pump 283</p>
<p>8.5 Carnot Principles 285</p>
<p>Further Reading 288</p>
<p>Summary 288</p>
<p>Problems 289</p>
<p>9 Vapour Power and Refrigeration Cycles 294</p>
<p>9.1 Rankine Cycle 294</p>
<p>9.2 Rankine Cycle with Superheat and Reheat 299</p>
<p>9.3 Rankine Cycle with Regeneration 305</p>
<p>9.3.1 Open Feedwater Heater 305</p>
<p>9.3.2 Closed Feedwater Heater 310</p>
<p>9.4 Vapour Refrigeration Cycle 312</p>
<p>Further Reading 316</p>
<p>Summary 316</p>
<p>Problems 318</p>
<p>10 Gas Power Cycles 324</p>
<p>10.1 Internal Combustion Engines 324</p>
<p>10.2 Otto Cycle 325</p>
<p>10.3 Diesel Cycle 331</p>
<p>10.4 Gas Turbines 334</p>
<p>10.5 Brayton Cycle 336</p>
<p>10.6 Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Reheat and Intercooling 340</p>
<p>10.6.1 Regeneration 340</p>
<p>10.6.2 Reheat 342</p>
<p>10.6.3 Intercooling 344</p>
<p>Further Reading 345</p>
<p>Summary 345</p>
<p>Problems 346</p>
<p>Appendices 351</p>
<p>Appendix 1: Properties of Gases 351</p>
<p>Appendix 2: Properties of Solids 352</p>
<p>Appendix 3: Properties of Liquids 353</p>
<p>Appendix 4: Specific Heats of Gases 354</p>
<p>Appendix 5: Polynomial Relations for Ideal Gas Specific Heat as a Function of Temperature 355</p>
<p>Appendix 6: Critical Properties of Fluids 356</p>
<p>Appendix 7: Ideal Gas Tables for Air 357</p>
<p>Appendix 8: Properties of Water 360</p>
<p>Appendix 9: Properties of R ]134a 373</p>
<p>Appendix 10: Generalised Compressibility 379</p>
<p>Index 381</p>