Sugarcane–based Biofuels and Bioproducts

<p>Preface, xiii</p>
<p>List of contributors, xv</p>
<p>Part I Sugarcane for biofuels and bioproducts</p>
<p>1 The sugarcane industry, biofuel, and bioproduct perspectives, 3<br />Ian M. O Hara</p>
<p>1.1 Sugarcane a global bioindustrial crop, 3</p>
<p>1.2 The global sugarcane industry, 5</p>
<p>1.2.1 Sugarcane, 5</p>
<p>1.2.2 Sugarcane harvesting and transport, 6</p>
<p>1.2.3 The raw sugar production process, 7</p>
<p>1.2.4 The refined sugar production process, 9</p>
<p>1.2.5 The sugar market, 11</p>
<p>1.3 Why biofuels and bioproducts?, 11</p>
<p>1.3.1 The search for new revenue, 11</p>
<p>1.3.2 Sugar, ethanol, and cogeneration, 12</p>
<p>1.3.3 Fiber–based biofuels and bioproducts, 13</p>
<p>1.3.4 Climate change and renewable products, 13</p>
<p>1.3.5 New industries for sustainable regional communities, 14</p>
<p>1.4 Sugarcane biorefinery perspectives, 14</p>
<p>1.4.1 The sugarcane biorefinery, 14</p>
<p>1.4.2 The sustainability imperative, 17</p>
<p>1.4.3 Future developments in biotechnology for sugarcane biorefineries, 18</p>
<p>1.5 Concluding remarks, 19</p>
<p>References, 20</p>
<p>2 Sugarcane biotechnology: tapping unlimited potential, 23<br />Sudipta S. Das Bhowmik, Anthony K. Brinin, Brett Williams and Sagadevan G. Mundree</p>
<p>2.1 Introduction, 23</p>
<p>2.2 History of sugarcane, sugarcane genetics, wild varieties, 24</p>
<p>2.3 Uses of sugarcane, 25</p>
<p>2.3.1 Food and beverages, 25</p>
<p>2.3.2 Biofuels and bioenergy, 26</p>
<p>2.3.3 Fibers and textiles, 26</p>
<p>2.3.4 Value–added products, 26</p>
<p>2.4 Sugarcane biotechnology, 26</p>
<p>2.4.1 Limitations of sugarcane biotechnology, 29</p>
<p>2.5 Improvement of sugarcane breeding versus genetic modification through biotechnology, 29</p>
<p>2.6 Genetic modification of sugarcane, 30</p>
<p>2.7 Paucity of high–quality promoters, 32</p>
<p>2.8 Opportunities for GM–improved sugarcane, 32</p>
<p>2.9 Improved stress tolerance and disease resistance, 35</p>
<p>2.9.1 Stress tolerance, 35</p>
<p>2.9.2 Drought, 35</p>
<p>2.9.3 Salinity, 35</p>
<p>2.10 Naturally resilient plants as a novel genetic source for stress tolerance, 36</p>
<p>2.11 Disease resistance, 37</p>
<p>2.12 Industrial application of sugarcane, 39</p>
<p>2.13 How will climate change and expanded growing–region affect vulnerability to pathogens?, 40</p>
<p>2.14 Conclusion and perspectives, 41</p>
<p>References, 42</p>
<p>Part II Biofuels and bioproducts</p>
<p>3 Fermentation of sugarcane juice and molasses for ethanol production, 55<br />Cec&iacute;lia Laluce, Guilherme R. Leite, Bruna Z. Zavitoski, Thamires T. Zamai</p>
<p>and Ricardo Ventura</p>
<p>3.1 Introduction, 55</p>
<p>3.2 Natural microbial ecology, 56</p>
<p>3.2.1 Saccharomyces yeasts, 56</p>
<p>3.2.2 Wild yeasts, 58</p>
<p>3.2.3 Bacterial contaminants, 58</p>
<p>3.3 Yeast identification, 60</p>
<p>3.3.1 Identification of genetic and physiological phenotypes, 60</p>
<p>3.3.2 Molecular identification methods, 61</p>
<p>3.4 Cell surface and cell cell interactions, 62</p>
<p>3.4.1 Dissolved air flotation, 62</p>
<p>3.4.2 Flocculation, 64</p>
<p>3.4.3 Biofilms, 65</p>
<p>3.5 Sugarcane juice and bagasse, 65</p>
<p>3.5.1 Harvesting of the sugarcane, 65</p>
<p>3.5.2 Reception and cleaning of sugarcane, 66</p>
<p>3.5.3 Juice extraction, 66</p>
<p>3.5.4 Juice clarification, 66</p>
<p>3.5.5 Juice concentration, 66</p>
<p>3.5.6 Quality of clarified juice, 67</p>
<p>3.6 Fermentation of juice and molasses, 67</p>
<p>3.6.1 Starters yeasts, 67</p>
<p>3.6.2 Raw materials used in fermentation, 67</p>
<p>3.6.3 The fermentation, 68</p>
<p>3.7 Cogeneration of energy from bagasse, 68</p>
<p>3.8 Bioreactors and processes, 69</p>
<p>3.8.1 Batch fermentation, 70</p>
<p>3.8.2 Fed–batch fermentation, 70</p>
<p>3.8.3 Multistage Stage Continuous Fermentation (MSCF) system, 72</p>
<p>3.9 Control of microbial infections, 73</p>
<p>3.10 Monitoring and controlling processes, 74</p>
<p>3.11 Concluding remarks and perspective, 76</p>
<p>Acknowledgments, 77</p>
<p>References, 77</p>
<p>4 Production of fermentable sugars from sugarcane bagasse, 87<br />Zhanying Zhang, Mark D. Harrison and Ian M. O Hara</p>
<p>4.1 Introduction, 87</p>
<p>4.2 Bioethanol from bagasse, 88</p>
<p>4.3 Overview of pretreatment technologies, 90</p>
<p>4.4 Pretreatment of bagasse, 91</p>
<p>4.4.1 Dilute acid pretreatment, 91</p>
<p>4.4.2 Alkaline pretreatment, 92</p>
<p>4.4.3 Liquid hot water pretreatment, 93</p>
<p>4.4.4 Organosolv pretreatment, 94</p>
<p>4.4.5 Ionic liquid pretreatment, 97</p>
<p>4.4.6 SO2– and CO2–associated pretreatments, 98</p>
<p>4.5 Enzymatic hydrolysis, 99</p>
<p>4.6 Fermentation, 100</p>
<p>4.7 Conclusions and future perspectives, 102</p>
<p>References, 103</p>
<p>5 Chemicals manufacture from fermentation of sugarcane products, 111<br />Karen T. Robins and Robert E. Speight</p>
<p>5.1 Introduction, 111</p>
<p>5.2 The suitability of sugarcane–derived feedstocks in industrial fermentation processes, 114</p>
<p>5.2.1 Competing current applications of sugarcane products, 115</p>
<p>5.2.2 Use of sugarcane products in fermentations, 117</p>
<p>5.3 Metabolism and industrial host strains, 121</p>
<p>5.3.1 Metabolism of sucrose, 121</p>
<p>5.3.2 Metabolism of lignocellulose–derived sugars, 124</p>
<p>5.3.3 Optimization of strains and metabolism, 126</p>
<p>5.4 Bioprocess considerations, 127</p>
<p>5.5 Sugarcane–derived chemical products, 130</p>
<p>5.6 Summary, 132</p>
<p>References, 133</p>
<p>6 Mathematical modeling of xylose production from hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse, 137<br />Ava Greenwood, Troy Farrell and Ian M. O Hara</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction, 137</p>
<p>6.2 Mathematical models of hemicellulose acid pretreatment, 139</p>
<p>6.2.1 Kinetic models of hemicellulose acid hydrolysis, 139</p>
<p>6.2.2 The Saeman kinetic model, 139</p>
<p>6.2.3 The biphasic model, 140</p>
<p>6.2.4 The polymer degradation equation, 143</p>
<p>6.2.5 Other mathematical considerations and models of hemicellulose acid hydrolysis, 146</p>
<p>6.3 A mathematical model of sugarcane bagasse dilute–acid hydrolysis, 150</p>
<p>6.4 Sensitivity analysis, 153</p>
<p>6.4.1 Experimental solids loadings and fitting the hard–to–hydrolyze parameter, 155</p>
<p>6.4.2 Hemicellulose chain length characteristics and the parameter fitting of ka and kb, 156</p>
<p>6.5 Conclusions, 159</p>
<p>References, 160</p>
<p>7 Hydrothermal liquefaction of lignin, 165<br />Kameron G. Dunn and Philip A. Hobson</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction, 165</p>
<p>7.2 A review of lignin alkaline hydrolysis research, 170</p>
<p>7.3 Hydrolysis in subcritical and supercritical water without an alkali base, 186</p>
<p>7.4 Solvolysis with hydrogen donor solvent formic acid, 188</p>
<p>7.5 Reported depolymerization pathways of lignin and lignin model compounds, 192</p>
<p>7.6 The solid residue product, 194</p>
<p>7.7 Summary strategies to increase yields of monophenols, 195</p>
<p>7.7.1 Reaction temperature, 200</p>
<p>7.7.2 Reaction pressure, 201</p>
<p>7.7.3 Reaction time, 201</p>
<p>7.7.4 Lignin loading, 202</p>
<p>7.7.5 Alkali molarity, 202</p>
<p>7.7.6 Monomer separation, 202</p>
<p>7.7.7 Lignin structure, 202</p>
<p>References, 203</p>
<p>8 Conversion of sugarcane carbohydrates into platform chemicals, 207<br />Darryn W. Rackemann, Zhanying Zhang and William O.S. Doherty</p>
<p>8.1 Introduction, 207</p>
<p>8.1.1 Bagasse, 208</p>
<p>8.1.2 Biorefining, 208</p>
<p>8.2 Platform chemicals, 210</p>
<p>8.2.1 Furans, 212</p>
<p>8.2.2 Furfural, 212</p>
<p>8.2.3 HMF, 214</p>
<p>8.3 Organic acids, 214</p>
<p>8.3.1 Levulinic acid, 214</p>
<p>8.3.2 Formic acid, 218</p>
<p>8.4 Value of potential hydrolysis products, 218</p>
<p>8.5 Current technology for manufacture of furans and levulinic acid, 220</p>
<p>8.6 Technology improvements, 222</p>
<p>8.7 Catalysts, 223</p>
<p>8.7.1 Homogeneous catalysts, 223</p>
<p>8.7.2 Heterogeneous catalysts, 224</p>
<p>8.7.3 Levulinic acid, 224</p>
<p>8.8 Solvolysis, 226</p>
<p>8.9 Other product chemicals, 228</p>
<p>8.9.1 Esters, 228</p>
<p>8.9.2 Ketals, 228</p>
<p>8.9.3 Chloromethylfurfural, 229</p>
<p>8.9.4 GVL, 229</p>
<p>8.10 Concluding remarks, 230</p>
<p>References, 231</p>
<p>9 Cogeneration of sugarcane bagasse for renewable energy production, 237<br />Anthony P. Mann</p>
<p>9.1 Introduction, 237</p>
<p>9.2 Background, 238</p>
<p>9.3 Sugar factory processes without large–scale cogeneration, 243</p>
<p>9.4 Sugar factory processes with large–scale cogeneration, 249</p>
<p>9.4.1 Reducing LP steam heating requirements, 249</p>
<p>9.4.2 Reducing boiler station losses, 251</p>
<p>9.4.3 Increasing power generation efficiency, 253</p>
<p>9.4.4 A sugar factory cogeneration steam cycle, 254</p>
<p>9.5 Conclusions, 256</p>
<p>References, 257</p>
<p>10 Pulp and paper production from sugarcane bagasse, 259<br />Thomas J. Rainey and Geoff Covey</p>
<p>10.1 Background, 259</p>
<p>10.2 History of bagasse in the pulp and paper industry, 260</p>
<p>10.3 Depithing, 260</p>
<p>10.3.1 The need for depithing, 260</p>
<p>10.3.2 Depithing operation, 262</p>
<p>10.3.3 Character of pith, depithed bagasse, and whole bagasse, 264</p>
<p>10.3.4 Combustion of pith, 264</p>
<p>10.4 Storage of bagasse for papermaking, 266</p>
<p>10.5 Chemical pulping and bleaching of bagasse, 268</p>
<p>10.5.1 Digestion, 268</p>
<p>10.5.2 Black liquor, 269</p>
<p>10.5.3 Bleaching, 270</p>
<p>10.6 Mechanical and chemi–mechanical pulping, 271</p>
<p>10.7 Papermaking, 272</p>
<p>10.7.1 Fiber morphology, 272</p>
<p>10.7.2 Suitability of bagasse for various paper grades, 273</p>
<p>10.7.3 Physical properties, 274</p>
<p>10.7.4 Effect of pith on paper production, 275</p>
<p>10.8 Alternate uses of bagasse pulp, 276</p>
<p>References, 277</p>
<p>11 Sugarcane–derived animal feed, 281<br />Mark D. Harrison</p>
<p>11.1 Introduction, 281</p>
<p>11.1.1 The anatomy of the sugarcane plant, 282</p>
<p>11.1.2 Sugarcane production, processing, and sugar refining, 282</p>
<p>11.1.3 Scope of the chapter, 284</p>
<p>11.2 Crop residues and processing products, 285</p>
<p>11.2.1 Whole sugarcane, 285</p>
<p>11.2.2 Tops and trash, 286</p>
<p>11.2.3 Bagasse, 288</p>
<p>11.2.4 Molasses, 288</p>
<p>11.2.5 Sugarcane juice, 290</p>
<p>11.3 Processing sugarcane residues to enhance their value in animal feed, 290</p>
<p>11.3.1 Ensilage/microbial conditioning, 291</p>
<p>11.3.2 Chemical conditioning, 293</p>
<p>11.3.3 Physical processing (baling, pelletization, depithing), 296</p>
<p>11.3.4 Pretreatment, 296</p>
<p>11.4 Conclusions, 300</p>
<p>References, 300</p>
<p>Part III Systems and sustainability</p>
<p>12 Integrated first– and second–generation processes for bioethanol production from sugarcane, 313<br />Marina O. de Souza Dias, Ot&aacute;vio Cavalett, Rubens M. Filho and Antonio Bonomi</p>
<p>12.1 Introduction, 313</p>
<p>12.2 Process descriptions, 315</p>
<p>12.2.1 First–generation ethanol production, 315</p>
<p>12.2.2 Second–generation ethanol production, 317</p>
<p>12.2.3 Cogeneration in integrated first– and second–generation ethanol production from sugarcane, 320</p>
<p>12.2.4 Some aspects of the process integration, 321</p>
<p>12.3 Economic aspects of first– and second–generation ethanol production, 323</p>
<p>12.4 Environmental aspects of first– and second–generation ethanol production, 325</p>
<p>12.5 Final remarks, 328</p>
<p>References, 328</p>
<p>13 Greenhouse gas abatement from sugarcane bioenergy, biofuels, and biomaterials, 333<br />Marguerite A. Renouf</p>
<p>13.1 Introduction, 333</p>
<p>13.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) of sugarcane systems, 335</p>
<p>13.2.1 Overview of LCA and carbon footprinting, 335</p>
<p>13.2.2 Past LCA and carbon footprint studies of sugarcane bioproducts, 337</p>
<p>13.3 Greenhouse gas/carbon footprint profile of sugarcane bioproducts, 339</p>
<p>13.3.1 Land use change, 339</p>
<p>13.3.2 Sugarcane production, 340</p>
<p>13.3.3 Sugarcane biorefining, 342</p>
<p>13.3.4 Downstream phases, 343</p>
<p>13.4 Greenhouse gas (GHG) abatement from sugarcane products, 343</p>
<p>13.4.1 Comparing sugarcane products with fossil fuel products, 343</p>
<p>13.4.2 Influence of land–use change, 344</p>
<p>13.4.3 Comparing sugarcane with other biomass feedstock, 345</p>
<p>13.4.4 Attributes for GHG abatement, 348</p>
<p>13.5 Environmental trade–offs, 349</p>
<p>13.5.1 Land use and associated environmental services, 349</p>
<p>13.5.2 Water use, 350</p>
<p>13.5.3 Water quality, 350</p>
<p>13.5.4 Phosphorus depletion, 351</p>
<p>13.5.5 Balancing the GHG abatement benefits with the environmental trade–offs, 351</p>
<p>13.6 Production pathways that optimize GHG abatement, 352</p>
<p>13.6.1 Production basis (dedicated vs. coproduction), 352</p>
<p>13.6.2 Product outputs, 352</p>
<p>13.6.3 Land used, 354</p>
<p>13.7 Opportunities for further optimizing GHG abatement, 354</p>
<p>13.7.1 Ecoefficient sugarcane growing, 354</p>
<p>13.7.2 Utilization of harvest residues, 355</p>
<p>13.7.3 New sugarcane varieties, 355</p>
<p>13.8 Summary, 355</p>
<p>References, 356</p>
<p>14 Environmental sustainability assessment of sugarcane bioenergy, 363<br />Shabbir H. Gheewala, S&eacute;bastien Bonnet and Thapat Silalertruksa</p>
<p>14.1 Bioenergy and the sustainability challenge, 363</p>
<p>14.2 Prospect of sugarcane bioenergy, 364</p>
<p>14.3 Environmental sustainability assessment tools, 365</p>
<p>14.4 Environmental sustainability assessment of sugarcane bioenergy: Case of Thailand, 366</p>
<p>14.4.1 Background and policy context, 366</p>
<p>14.4.2 Sugarcane farming and production system, 366</p>
<p>14.4.3 Sugarcane farming and harvesting, 367</p>
<p>14.4.4 Sugarcane milling, 367</p>
<p>14.4.5 Ethanol conversion, 368</p>
<p>14.4.6 Transport, 368</p>
<p>14.5 Net energy balance and net energy ratio, 369</p>
<p>14.6 Life cycle environmental impacts, 369</p>
<p>14.7 Key environmental considerations for promoting sugarcane bioenergy, 372</p>
<p>References, 376</p>
<p>Index, 379</p>