Energy Efficient Manufacturing – Theory and Applications

<p>Preface xv</p>
<p>1 Introduction to Energy Efficient Manufacturing 1<br />Barbara S. Linke and John W. Sutherland</p>
<p>1.1 Energy Use Implications &nbsp;2</p>
<p>1.2 Drivers and Solutions for Energy Efficiency 3</p>
<p>References 9</p>
<p>2 Operation Planning &amp; Monitoring 11<br />Y.B. Guo</p>
<p>2.1 Unit Manufacturing Processes &nbsp;11</p>
<p>2.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of Unit Manufacturing Process 13</p>
<p>2.3 Energy Consumption in Unit Manufacturing Process 16</p>
<p>2.3.1 Basic Concepts of Energy, Power, and Work 16</p>
<p>2.3.2 Framework of Energy Consumption 17</p>
<p>2.4 Operation Plan Relevance to Energy Consumption 19</p>
<p>2.5 Energy Accounting in Unit Manufacturing Processes 20</p>
<p>2.6 Processing Energy in Unit Manufacturing Process 21</p>
<p>2.6.1 Cases of Processing Energy Modeling 21</p>
<p>2.6.1.1 Forging 21</p>
<p>2.6.1.2 Orthogonal Cutting 22</p>
<p>2.6.1.3 Grinding 24</p>
<p>2.6.1.4 Specific Energy vs. MRR 25</p>
<p>2.6.2 Energy Measurement 26</p>
<p>2.7 Energy Reduction Opportunities 26</p>
<p>2.7.1 Shortening Process Chain by Hard Machining 28</p>
<p>2.7.2 Substitution of Process Steps 28</p>
<p>2.7.3 Hybrid processes 29</p>
<p>2.7.4 Adaptation of Cooling and Flushing Strategies 29</p>
<p>2.7.5 Remanufacturing 30</p>
<p>References 30</p>
<p>3 Materials Processing 33<br />Karl R. Haapala, Sundar V. Atre, Ravi Enneti, Ian C. Garretson, Hao Zhang</p>
<p>3.1 Steel 34</p>
<p>3.1.1 Steelmaking Technology 35</p>
<p>3.2 Aluminum 36</p>
<p>3.2.1 Aluminum Alloying 37</p>
<p>3.2.2 History of Aluminum Processing 37</p>
<p>3.2.3 Aluminum in Commerce 38</p>
<p>3.2.4 Aluminum Processing 41</p>
<p>3.2.5 Bayer Process 42</p>
<p>3.2.6 Preparation of Carbon 44</p>
<p>3.2.7 Hall–Heroult Electrolytic Process 44</p>
<p>3.3 Titanium 45</p>
<p>3.3.1 Titanium Alloying 46</p>
<p>3.3.2 History of Titanium Processing 47</p>
<p>3.3.3 Titanium in Commerce 48</p>
<p>3.3.4 Titanium Processing Methods 49</p>
<p>3.3.5 Sulfate Process 50</p>
<p>3.3.6 Chloride Process 51</p>
<p>3.3.7 Hunter Process and Kroll Process 51</p>
<p>3.3.8 Remelting Processes 52</p>
<p>3.3.9 Emerging Titanium Processing Technologies 52</p>
<p>3.4 Polymers 54</p>
<p>3.4.1 Life Cycle Environmental and Cost Assessment 59</p>
<p>3.4.2 An Application of Polymer–Powder Processes 59</p>
<p>References 61</p>
<p>4 Energy Reduction in Manufacturing via Incremental Forming and Surface Microtexturing 65<br />Jian Cao and Rajiv Malhotra</p>
<p>4.1 Incremental Forming 66</p>
<p>4.1.1 Conventional Forming Processes 66</p>
<p>4.1.2 Energy Reduction via Incremental Forming 71</p>
<p>4.1.3 Challenges in Incremental Forming 77</p>
<p>4.1.3.1 Toolpath Planning for Enhanced Geometric Accuracy and Process Flexibility 78</p>
<p>4.1.3.2 Formability Prediction and Deformation Mechanics 87</p>
<p>4.1.3.3 Process Innovation and Materials Capability in DSIF 94</p>
<p>4.1.3.4 Future Challenges in Incremental Forming 97</p>
<p>4.2 Surface Microtexturing 98</p>
<p>4.2.1 Energy Based Applications of Surface Microtexturing 99</p>
<p>4.2.1.1 Microtexturing for Friction Reduction 99</p>
<p>4.2.1.2 Microtexturing Methods 101</p>
<p>4.2.1.3 Future Work in Microtexturing 116</p>
<p>4.3 Summary 117</p>
<p>4.4 Acknowledgement 117</p>
<p>References 118</p>
<p>5 An Analysis of Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency in Material Removal Processes 123<br />Tao Lu and I.S. Jawahir</p>
<p>5.1 Overview 123</p>
<p>5.2 Plant and workstation levels 125</p>
<p>5.3 Operation level 129</p>
<p>5.4 Process Optimization for Energy Consumption 134</p>
<p>5.4.1 Plant Level and Workstation Level 134</p>
<p>5.4.2 Operation Level 136</p>
<p>5.4.2.1 Turning Operation 137</p>
<p>5.4.2.2 Milling Operation 143</p>
<p>5.4.2.3 Drilling Operation 147</p>
<p>5.4.2.4 Grinding operation 148</p>
<p>5.5 Conclusions 151</p>
<p>Reference 151</p>
<p>6 Nontraditional Removal Processes 155<br />Murali Sundaram and K.P. Rajurkar</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 155</p>
<p>6.1.2 Working Principle 156</p>
<p>6.1.2.1 Electrical Discharge Machining 156</p>
<p>6.2.2.2 Electrochemical Machining 157</p>
<p>6.1.2.3 Electrochemical Ddischarge Machining 159</p>
<p>6.1.2.4 Electrochemical Grinding 160</p>
<p>6.2 Energy Efficiency 161</p>
<p>Acknowledgments 163</p>
<p>References 163</p>
<p>7 Surface Treatment and Tribological Considerations 165<br />S.R. Schmid and J. Jeswiet</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 166</p>
<p>7.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 169</p>
<p>7.2.1 Surface Geometry Modification 170</p>
<p>7.2.2 Microstructural Modification 171</p>
<p>7.2.3 Chemical Approaches 175</p>
<p>7.3 Coating Operations 175</p>
<p>7.3.1 Hard Facing 175</p>
<p>7.3.2 Vapor Deposition 179</p>
<p>7.3.3 Miscellaneous Coating Operations 181</p>
<p>7.4 Tribology 185</p>
<p>7.5 Evolving Technologies 187</p>
<p>7.5.1 Biomimetics Biologically Inspired Design 187</p>
<p>7.6 Micro Manufacturing 188</p>
<p>7.7 Conclusions 190</p>
<p>References 190</p>
<p>8 Joining Processes 193<br />Amber Shrivastava, Manuela Krones, Frank E. Pfefferkorn</p>
<p>8.1 Introduction 194</p>
<p>8.2 Sustainability in Joining 196</p>
<p>8.3 Taxonomy 199</p>
<p>8.4 Data Sources 201</p>
<p>8.5 Efficiency of Joining Equipment 204</p>
<p>8.6 Efficiency of Joining Processes 206</p>
<p>8.6.1 Fusion Welding 207</p>
<p>8.6.2 Chemical Joining Methods 210</p>
<p>8.6.3 Solid–State Welding 212</p>
<p>8.6.4 Mechanical Joining Methods 214</p>
<p>8.6.4.1 Mechanical Fastening 214</p>
<p>8.6.4.2 Adhesive Bonding 215</p>
<p>8.7 Process Selection 216</p>
<p>8.8 Efficiency of Joining Facilities 217</p>
<p>8.9 Case Studies 220</p>
<p>8.9.1 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 220</p>
<p>8.9.2 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 224</p>
<p>Reference 231</p>
<p>9 Manufacturing Equipment 235<br />M. Helu, N. Diaz–Elsayed, D. Dornfeld </p>
<p>9.1 Introduction 235</p>
<p>9.2 Power Measurement 236</p>
<p>9.3 Characterizing the Power Demand 238</p>
<p>9.3.1 Constant Power 238</p>
<p>9.3.2 Variable Power 239</p>
<p>9.3.3 Processing Power 240</p>
<p>9.4 Energy Model 240</p>
<p>9.5 Life Cycle Energy Analysis of Production Equipment 241</p>
<p>9.6 Energy Reduction Strategies 243</p>
<p>9.6.1 Strategies for Equipment with High Processing Power 244</p>
<p>9.6.2 Strategies for Equipment with High Tare Power 245</p>
<p>9.6.2.1 Process Time 245</p>
<p>9.6.2.2 Machine Design 246</p>
<p>9.7 Additional Life Cycle Impacts of Energy</p>
<p>Reduction Strategies 248</p>
<p>9.8 Summary 250</p>
<p>References 252</p>
<p>10 Energy Considerations in Assembly Operations 257<br />Camelio, J.A., McCullough, D., Prosch, S. and Rickli, J.L.</p>
<p>10.1 Introduction to Assembly Systems &amp; Operations 258</p>
<p>10.2 Fundamentals of Assembly Operations 259</p>
<p>10.3 characterizing Assembly System Energy Consumption 260</p>
<p>10.3.1 Indirect Energy 261</p>
<p>10.3.2 Direct Energy 262</p>
<p>10.4 Direct Energy Considerations of Assembly Joining Processes 264</p>
<p>10.4.1 Mechanical Assembly 264</p>
<p>10.4.2 Adhesive Bonding 265</p>
<p>10.4.3 Welding, Brazing, and Soldering 268</p>
<p>10.5 Assembly System Energy Metrics 271</p>
<p>10.6 Case Study: Heavy Duty Truck Assembly 276</p>
<p>10.6.1 Case Study Energy Consumption Analysis Approach 276</p>
<p>10.6.2 Assembly Process Categorization 277</p>
<p>10.6.3 Case Study Energy Analysis Results 281</p>
<p>10.6.4 Discussion and Recommendations 288</p>
<p>10.7 Future of Energy Efficient Assembly Operations 289</p>
<p>References 290</p>
<p>Appendix 10.A 292</p>
<p>11 Manufacturing Facility Energy Improvement 295<br />Chris Yuan, Junling Xie, John Nicol</p>
<p>11.1 Introduction 296</p>
<p>11.2 Auxiliary Industrial Energy Consumptions 299</p>
<p>11.2.1 Lighting 299</p>
<p>11.2.1.1 Lighting Technologies 300</p>
<p>11.2.1.2 Opportunities for Improving Energy Efficiency of Industrial Lighting 301</p>
<p>References 334</p>
<p>12 Energy Efficient Manufacturing Process Planning 335<br />RuixueYin, Fu Zhao, John W. Sutherland</p>
<p>12.1 Introduction 335</p>
<p>12.2 The Basics of Process Planning 337</p>
<p>12.2.1 Types of Production 338</p>
<p>12.2.2 Process Planning Procedure 340</p>
<p>12.2.3 Process Planning Methods 342</p>
<p>12.3 Energy Efficient Process Planning 346</p>
<p>12.3.1 Energy Consumption and Carbon Footprint Models of Manufacturing Processes</p>
<p>12.3.2 A Semi–Generative Process Planning 346</p>
<p>Approach for Energy Efficiency 347</p>
<p>12.4 Case Study 349</p>
<p>12.5 Conclusions 353</p>
<p>Reference 353</p>
<p>13 Scheduling for Energy Efficient Manufacturing 355<br />Nelson A. Uhan, Andrew Liu and Fu Zhao </p>
<p>13.1 Introduction 355</p>
<p>13.2 A Brief Introduction to Scheduling 356</p>
<p>13.3 Machine Environments 356</p>
<p>13.4 Job Characteristics 358</p>
<p>13.5 Feasible Schedules and Gantt Charts 358</p>
<p>13.6 Objective functions: classic time–based objectives 360</p>
<p>13.7 Objective Functions for Energy Efficiency 361</p>
<p>13.8 An Integer Linear Program for Scheduling an Energy–Efficient Flow Shop 363</p>
<p>13.9 A Very Brief Introduction to Mathematical Optimization 364</p>
<p>13.10 A Time–Indexed Integer Linear Program for the Energy–Efficient Flow Shop Problem 366</p>
<p>13.10.1 Algorithms for Solving IntegerLinear Programs 372</p>
<p>13.11 Conclusion and Additional Reading 373</p>
<p>References 375</p>
<p>14 Energy Efficiency in the Supply Chain 377<br />Thomas J. Goldsby and Fazleena Badurdeen</p>
<p>14.1 Supply Chain Management 377</p>
<p>14.2 Supply Chain Structure 378</p>
<p>14.3 Supply Chain Processes 381</p>
<p>14.3.1 Customer Relationship Management 383</p>
<p>14.3.2 Supplier Relationship Management 384</p>
<p>14.3.3 Customer Service Management 385</p>
<p>14.3.4 Demand Management 386</p>
<p>14.3.5 Manufacturing Flow Management 387</p>
<p>14.3.6 Order Fulfillment 388</p>
<p>14.3.7 Product Development and Commercialization 389</p>
<p>14.3.8 Returns Management 390</p>
<p>14.4 Supply Chain Management Components 391</p>
<p>14.5 Conclusion 392</p>
<p>References 392</p>
<p>Endnotes 396</p>
<p>15 Business Models and Organizational Strategies 397<br />Omar Romero–Hernandez, David Hirsch, Sergio Romero, Sara Beckman</p>
<p>15.1 Introduction 398</p>
<p>15.2 Reference Framework for Selection of Energy Efficiency Projects 400</p>
<p>15.2.1 Mission and Drivers 401</p>
<p>15.2.2 Set Level of Assessment 401</p>
<p>15.2.3 Recognize Opportunities and Risk 402</p>
<p>15.2.4 Select Projects 402</p>
<p>15.2.5 Implementation and Communication 403</p>
<p>15.3 Common Energy Efficiency Opportunities 404</p>
<p>15.3.1 Building Envelope 404</p>
<p>15.3.2 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) 405</p>
<p>15.3.3 Efficient Lighting 406</p>
<p>15.3.4 Efficient Motors and Systems 407</p>
<p>15.3.5 Building Management Systems 408</p>
<p>15.4 Stakeholders 409</p>
<p>15.4.1 Tenants and Owners 409</p>
<p>15.4.2 Regulators 410</p>
<p>15.4.3 Banks/Lenders 410</p>
<p>15.4.4 Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) 411</p>
<p>15.4.5 Business Models 411</p>
<p>15.5 Conclusions 413</p>
<p>References 413</p>
<p>16 Energy Efficient or Energy Effective Manufacturing? 417<br />S. A. Shade and J. W. Sutherland</p>
<p>16.1 Energy Efficiency: A Macro Perspective 418</p>
<p>16.1.1 Government Perspective 418</p>
<p>16.1.2 Company Perspective 419</p>
<p>16.2 The Basics of Energy Efficiency 421</p>
<p>16.3 Limitations of Energy Efficiency 429</p>
<p>16.4 Energy Effectiveness 432</p>
<p>16.4.1 Effectiveness It s Up to the Decision Maker 434</p>
<p>16.4.2 Effectiveness A Choice on Where to Invest 435</p>
<p>16.4.3 Effectiveness Is An Action Really Worthwhile? 435</p>
<p>16.5 Summary 438</p>
<p>16.6 Acknowledgments 439</p>
<p>References 439</p>