Handbook of Behavioral Teratology

I General Principles and Issues.- 1 · Origins of Behavioral Teratology.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Emergence of Behavioral Teratology.- 3. Reemergence of Behavioral Teratology.- 4. Behavioral Teratology and Behavioral Toxicology.- 5. The Prenatal/Postnatal Dichotomy.- 6. Dual Influence of Regulations and the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.- 6.1. Influence of Government Regulations.- 6.2. Influence of Discovery of the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.- 7. Collaborative Project on Behavioral Teratology Methods.- 8. Other Influences.- 9. Scope of the Problem, or Who Cares Anyway?.- 10. Concluding Remarks.- 11. References.- 2 · Principles of Behavioral Teratology.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Wilson’s Principles of Teratology.- 2.1. Principle of Genetic and Environmental Determination.- 2.2. Principle of Critical Periods.- 2.3. Principle of Specific Mechanisms.- 2.4. Principle of Teratogenic Response.- 2.5. Principle of Target Access.- 2.6. Principle of Dose-Response Relationships.- 3. Principles of Behavioral Teratology.- 3.1. Principle of Genetic Determination.- 3.2. Principle of Critical Periods.- 3.3. Principle of Specific Mechanisms.- 3.4. Principle of Behavioral Teratogenic Response.- 3.5. Principle of Target Access.- 3.6. Principle of Dose-Response Relationships.- 3.7. Principle of Environmental Determination.- 3.8. Principle of Types of Behavioral Teratogens.- 3.9. Principle of Response Relationships.- 3.10. Principle of Maximum Susceptibility.- 3.11. Principle of Limits of Behavioral Teratogenic Susceptibility.- 3.12. Principle of Preconceptional and Transgenerational Effects.- 4. Behavioral versus Physical Teratogenesis.- 5. Concluding Remarks.- 6. References.- 3 · Comparison and Critique of Government Relations for Behavioral Teratology.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. The Mandate.- 1.2. A Comparison.- 1.3. Logic or Fallacy?.- 2. Description and Critique of Regulations in Japan.- 3. Description and Critique of Regulations in Great Britain.- 4. Description and Critique of Regulations in France and Italy.- 5. Regulations of the European Economic Community.- 6. Summary of the Critique of Existing Guidelines.- 7. Description and Critique of Regulations in the United States.- 7.1. Overview.- 7.2. Food and Drug Administration Guidelines.- 7.3. Environmental Protection Agency Guidelines.- 8. Conclusions.- 9. References.- 4 · Methods in Behavioral Teratology.- 1. Introduction.- 2. General Experimental Design: Considerations for Increasing the Sensitivity of the Experiment.- 2.1. Procedures for the Reduction of Error Variance.- 2.2. Determination of the Appropriate Sample Size for Postnatal Testing.- 2.3. The Use of a Replicate Design.- 3. Guidelines for the Selection of Methods.- 3.1. When Human Behavioral Teratology Data Are Available.- 3.2. When Neurochemical, Neuroanatomical, or Animal Behavioral Data Are Available.- 3.3. When Information Is Not Available.- 4. Glossary of Methods That Are Frequently Used in Behavioral Teratology Studies.- 4.1. Measures of Learning Abilities.- 4.2. Measures of Sensory Function.- 4.3. Measures of Activity.- 4.4. Measures of Pharmacological Responsiveness.- 4.5. Measures of Neuromotor Abilities.- 5. Interpretation of Results.- 6. References.- II Drugs.- 5 · Behavioral Teratology of Alcohol.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Procedural Considerations.- 3. Behavioral Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure.- 3.1. Suckling Behavior.- 3.2. Developmental Indices.- 3.3. Activity and Exploration.- 3.4. Learning.- 3.5. Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors.- 3.6. Aggression.- 3.7. Ethanol Preference, Sensitivity, and Tolerance.- 3.8. Reactivity and Seizure Susceptibility.- 4. Psychopharmacological Aspects of Behavioral Dysfunctions.- 5. Organizing Theories and Mechanisms.- 6. Summary.- 7. References.- 6 · Neurobehavioral Effects in Human and Animal Offspring following Prenatal Exposure to Methadone.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Neurobehavioral Effects in Infants and Children.- 2.1. Neonatal Sleep Studies.- 2.2. The Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome.- 2.3. Abstinence Mechanisms.- 2.4. Longitudinal Studies.- 2.5. Interpretation of Clinical Outcome: Multifactorial Causation.- 2.6. Effects on Mother-Infant Interaction.- 2.7. Genetic-Environmental Interactions.- 3. Animal Studies.- 3.1. Methodological Issues.- 3.2. Neurobehavioral Studies.- 3.3. Biochemical Effects on Growth.- 3.4. Neonatal Abstinence.- 3.5. Long-term Behavioral Effects.- 4. Summary and Conclusion.- 5. References.- 7 · Postnatal Functional Assessment following Central Nervous System Stimulant Exposure: Amphetamine and Caffeine.- 1. The Amphetamines.- 2. Caffeine.- 3. Conclusions.- 4. References.- 8 · Behavioral, Psychopharmacological, and Neurochemical Effects of Chronic Neuroleptic Treatment during Development.- 1. Behavioral Effects of Chronic Neuroleptic Treatment Early in Life.- 2. Psychopharmacological and Neurochemical Effects of Chronic Neuroleptic Treatment Early in Life.- 2.1. Alterations in the Dopaminergic System.- 2.2. Alterations in Other Neural Systems.- 3. Longevity of the Effects of Early Chronic Administration of Neuroleptics and the Importance of Age at the Time of Testing.- 4. Summary, Conclusions, and Possible Therapeutic Implications.- 5. References.- 9 · Behavioral Effects of Antimitotic Agents Administered during Neurogenesis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Neuroteratology.- 3. Behavioral Effects.- 3.1. Seizures.- 3.2. Activity.- 3.3. Locomotor and Reflex Measures.- 3.4. Maze Tasks and Other Learning Problems.- 4. Birth Weight and Growth.- 5. References.- 10 · Behavioral Teratology of Anticonvulsant and Antianxiety Medications.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Anticonvulsants and Malformations.- 3. Fetal Anticonvulsant Syndromes.- 3.1. The Fetal Hydantoin Syndrome.- 3.2. The Fetal Trimethadione Syndrome.- 3.3. The Fetal Barbital and Primidone Syndromes.- 3.4. Comparisons among Fetal Anticonvulsant Syndromes.- 3.5. Fetal Effects of Valproate.- 3.6. Fetal Effects of Carbamazepine.- 3.7. Other Anticonvulsants.- 4. Psychoteratogenesis of Anticonvulsants in Animals.- 4.1. Psychoteratogenesis of Phenytoin.- 4.2. Psychoteratogenesis of Trimethadione.- 4.3. Psychoteratogenesis of Valproate.- 4.4. Psychoteratogenesis of Carbamazepine.- 5. Psychoteratogenesis of Benzodiazepines in Animals.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11 · Prenatal Phenobarbital: Effects on Pregnancy and Offspring.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Barbiturate Use during Pregnancy.- 2.1. Use as a Sedative.- 2.2. Use as an Abused Substance.- 2.3. Use in Hyperbilirubinemia.- 2.4. Use as an Antiepileptic Agent.- 3. Distribution of Maternal Barbiturates and Effects on the Fetus.- 4. Prenatal Maternal Barbiturate Effects on Human Offspring.- 5. Procedural Problems with Animal Studies on Perinatal Phenobarbital.- 5.1. Drug Dose and Exposure Time.- 5.2. Effect of Route of Drug Administration on Pregnancy.- 5.3. Pre- versus Postnatal Contributions of Prenatal Phenobarbital.- 6. Prenatal Maternal Phenobarbital Effects on Animal Offspring Behavior.- 6.1. Developing Offspring.- 6.2. Mature Offspring.- 7. Possible Mechanisms Mediating the Behavioral Effects of Prenatal Phenobarbital.- 7.1. Effects on Endocrine Systems.- 7.2. Effects on the Central Nervous System.- 8. Summary and Conclusions.- 9. References.- 12 · The Effects of Early Marijuana Exposure.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Pharmacology.- 3. Methodological Caveats.- 4. Teratogenic Effects.- 5. Growth.- 6. Behavioral Teratology of Marijuana.- 6.1. Human Studies.- 6.2. Animal Studies.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. References.- III Environmental Agents.- 13 · Animal Models of Behavioral Effects of Early Lead Exposure.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Activity.- 2.1. Rat Studies.- 2.2. Mouse Studies.- 2.3. Motor Ability.- 2.4. Summary of Activity Studies.- 3. Learning.- 3.1. Avoidance Behavior.- 3.2. Maze Learning.- 3.3. Discrimination Learning.- 3.4. Schedule-Controlled Behavior.- 3.5. Learning in Nonhuman Primates.- 3.6. Summary of Learning Studies.- 4. Social Behavior.- 4.1. Mother-Infant Interaction.- 4.2. Interaction with Peers.- 5. Sensory Systems.- 5.1. Vision.- 5.2. Audition.- 6. Consummatory Behavior.- 7. Seizures and Stress.- 8. Conclusions.- 9. References.- 14 · Behavioral Teratogenesis Resulting from Early Cadmium Exposure.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Cadmium in the Environment.- 1.2. General Toxicity.- 1.3. Sensitivity of the Young to Early Cadmium Exposure.- 2. Prenatal Studies.- 2.1. Neurotoxic Effects.- 2.2. Oral Cadmium Exposure.- 2.3. Cadmium Exposure via Inhalation.- 3. Postnatal Exposure Studies.- 3.1. Cadmium Exposure via Parenteral Administration.- 3.2. Oral Cadmium Exposure.- 4. Effects of Male Cadmium Exposure on Progeny.- 5. Conclusions and Future Considerations.- 5.1. Summary.- 5.2. Development of a Standard Exposure Index.- 5.3. Role of Metallothionein.- 5.4. Interaction of Cadmium with Essential Metals.- 6. References.- 15 · Psychogenic and Neurogenic Abnormalities after Perinatal Insecticide Exposure: A Critical Review.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Aims: Assessment of Psychogenic and Neurogenic Abnormalities.- 3. Evaluation Criteria and Scope.- 4. Organochlorines.- 4.1. Background.- 4.2. Categorization.- 4.3. Biotransformation and Mode of Action.- 4.4. Placental and Lactational Transfer.- 4.5. Psychogenic and Neurogenic Abnormalities.- 5. Organophosphates.- 5.1. Background.- 5.2. Categorization.- 5.3. Biotransformation and Mode of Action.- 5.4. Placental or Lactational Transfer.- 5.5. Psychogenic and Neurogenic Abnormalities.- 6. Carbamates.- 6.1. Background.- 6.2. Categorization.- 6.3. Biotransformation and Mode of Action.- 6.4. Placental and Lactational Transfer.- 6.5. Psychogenic and Neurogenic Abnormalities.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. Future Trends and Comments.- 9. References.- 16 · Behavioral Teratology of Industrial Solvents.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Teratology Testing.- 1.2. Criteria for Evaluating Behavioral Teratology Studies.- 2. Behavioral Teratogenic Effects of Individual Solvents.- 2.1. Benzene (Postnatal).- 2.2. Carbon Disulfide.- 2.3. Chloroform.- 2.4. 2-Ethoxyethanol.- 2.5. Formaldehyde.- 2.6. 2-Methoxyethanol.- 2.7. Methyl Chloroform.- 2.8. Methyl n-Butyl Ketone (MnBK).- 2.9. Methylene Chloride.- 2.10. Paint Thinner (Postnatal Exposure).- 2.11. Perchlorethylene.- 2.12. Tertiary Butanol.- 3. Concluding Remarks.- 4. References.- IV Special Agents.- 17 · Maternal Mediation of the Effects of Malnutrition.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Prenatal Period.- 2.1. Normal Development.- 2.2. Effects of Malnutrition.- 2.3. Adaptations to Malnutrition.- 2.4. Summary.- 3. Postnatal Period.- 3.1. Normal Development.- 3.2. Effects of Malnutrition.- 3.3. Adaptations to Malnutrition.- 3.4. Summary.- 4. Discussion.- 5. References.- 18 · Perinatal Hypoxia: Implications for Mammalian Development.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Pending Issues.- 3. Pharmacokinetic and Physiological Factors.- 4. Gross Developmental Abnormalties.- 5. Early Behavioral Development.- 5.1. Prenatal Studies.- 5.2. Neonatal Studies.- 5.3. Summary.- 6. Motor Activity.- 6.1. Prenatal Studies.- 6.2. Neonatal Studies.- 6.3. Summary.- 7. Learning and Memory.- 7.1. Prenatal Studies.- 7.2. Neonatal Studies.- 7.3. Summary.- 8. References.- 19 · Effects of Prenatal Irradiation on Postnatal Psychophysiological Development.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Nature of Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation.- 3. Review of the Literature.- 3.1. Ionizing Radiation.- 3.2. Nonionizing Radiation.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. References.- 20 · Behavioral Teratogenicity of Gonadal and Adrenal Steroids.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Androgens.- 2.1. Reproductive Activity.- 2.2. Aggression.- 2.3. Play.- 2.4. Activity.- 2.5. Taste Preference.- 2.6. Acquired Behavior.- 3. Estrogens.- 3.1. Reproductive Activity.- 3.2. Aggression.- 3.3. Activity.- 3.4. Human Behavior and Personality.- 4. Progestins.- 4.1. Reproductive Activity.- 4.2. Activity.- 4.3. Acquired Behavior.- 4.4. Play.- 4.5. Human Behavior and Personality.- 5. Adrenal Corticosteroids.- 5.1. Developmental-Behavioral Milestones.- 5.2. Reproductive Activity.- 5.3. Aggression.- 5.4. Activity.- 5.5. Acquired Behavior.- 6. Concluding Comments.- 7. References.